LIBRARY 

OF   THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GIFT    OF 


Class 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 


Gift  of    j^ 

No.       ^  Received    / 


A  HISTORY 


OF   THE 


UNITED    STATES 

OF  AMERICA 

ITS  PEOPLE.  AND  ITS  INSTITUTIONS 


BY 

CHARLES    MORRIS 

AUTHOR    OF    "AN    ELEMENTARY  HISTORY  OF    THE    UNITED    STATES,"    "  HISTORICAL  TALES. 
"  HALF-HOURS    WITH    AMERICAN    HISTORY,"    ETC.,    ETC. 


WITH  MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


J.   B.   LIPPJNCOTT   COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1897, 

BY 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY. 


PREFACE. 


IN  the  intellectual  development  of  the  youth  of  America 
there  can  be  no  more  healthful  and  important  discipline 
than  a  study  of  the  history  of  their  own  country  in  its 
events,  institutions,  and  social  and  industrial  movements.. 
As  an  aid  to  the  acquirement  of  such  knowledge  this  work 
has  been  prepared.  It  is  necessarily  condensed  in  state 
ment,  yet  even  in  a  volume  of  this  extent  it  is  quite  possi 
ble  to  indicate  the  leading  events  of  United  States  history, 
show  their  relations  and  historical  significance,  and  give  a 
fair  general  comprehension  of  the  circumstances  attending 
the  civilized  occupation  of  America. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work  several  essential  consid 
erations  have  been  kept  steadily  in  view.  These  include 
clearness  and  accuracy  of  statement,  simplicity  of  language, 
and  avoidance  of  partisan  or  sectional  opinions,  impartiality 
being  made  a  leading  requisite.  This  country  has  been  the 
scene  not  only  of  rapid  progress  in  times  of  peace,  but  of 
several  wars  of  great  political  significance.  While  it  was 
not  deemed  expedient  to  dwell  on  the  details  of  these  wars, 
their  causes,  general  movements,  and  results  have  been 
given  in  each  instance  in  such  fulness  as  its  importance 
seemed  to  demand. 

The  public  conception  of  what  constitutes  history  has 
greatly  broadened  within  the  present  century.  Formerly 
the  doings  of  courts  and  kings  and  the  details  of  battles  and 
sieges  were  the  leading  considerations.  Now  the  doings  of 
the  people  are  deemed  equally,  if  not  more,  important,  and 

00-1^00  Ui 

&t*t  JL  f  r*r<* 


iv  PREFACE. 

the  social,  economical,  ethical,  and  other  elements  of  human 
life  and  progress  attract  the  careful  attention  of  the  histo 
rian.  In  the  present  work  these  leading  elements  of  his 
torical  development  have  been  somewhat  fully  dwelt  upon, 
the  more  important  of  them  being  specially  treated  in  sep 
arate  chapters.  For  example,  the  subject  of  the  develop 
ment  of  political  institutions  has  been  thus  epitomized,  in 
order  that  the  student,  instead  of  being  obliged  to  seek 
throughout  the  book  for  references  to  this  subject,  may 
read  its  history  consecutively.  Other  elements  of  our 
national  life  have  been  similarly  treated. 

After  Section  1  there  will  be  found  an  analytical  table  of 
the  subjects  embraced  in  that  section.  This  is  given  simply 
as  an  example  to  guide  pupils  in  preparing  similar  analyses 
of  the  succeeding  sections,  an  exercise  which  will  have  its 
value  in  impressing  upon  their  minds  the  succession  and 
relations  of  historical  events.  No  series  of  consecutive 
questions  has  been  given,  since  it  is  well  known  that  ad 
vanced  modern  teachers  prefer  to  make  their  own  ques 
tions  from  the  text.  As  a  useful  aid  in  this,  the  subject- 
matter  of  every  distinctive  paragraph  has  been  indicated  by 
a  word  or  phrase  which  will  serve  as  a  ready  basis  for  ques 
tions  on  the  topics  embraced,  and  also  as  an  aid  in  im 
pressing  the  subject  treated  on  the  pupil's  mind.  The 
writer  has  therefore  confined  himself  to  a  chronological 
table  of  important  events  and  a  series  of  questions  useful 
for  review. 

As  additional  aids  to  the  student,  maps  and  illustrations 
have  been  somewhat  abundantly  provided,  while  much 
anecdotal,  biographical,  and  other  information  has  been 
appended  in  the  form  of  notes.  With  these  remarks  this 
work  is  offered  to  the  world  of  schools,  where  the  best  test 
of  merit,  that  of  actual  use,  can  be  applied. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 
DISCOVERY  AND  INHABITANTS  OF  AMERICA. 

PAGE 

1.  THE  ERA  OF  DISCOVERY 11 

2.  THE  INDIANS,  THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  CUSTOMS   ....     28 


PART   II. 
THE  ERA  OF  EXPLORATION. 

1.  THE  SPANISH  EXPLORERS 41 

2.  THE  FRENCH  EXPLORERS      45 

3.  THE  ENGLISH  EXPLORERS 53 

4.  THE  DUTCH  EXPLORERS 58 


PART   IH. 
THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

L  THE  COLONY  IN  VIRGINIA 61 

2.  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES 77 

PLYMOUTH 77 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY 83 

MAINE  AND  NEW  HAMPSHIRE 90 

RHODE  ISLAND 92 

CONNECTICUT 94 

THE  CONFEDERATED  COLONIES 98 

3.  NEW  YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY 102 

NEW  NETHERLAND 102 

NEW  YORK 106 

NEW  JERSEY 108 

V 


vi  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

4.  PENNSYLVANIA  AND  DELAWARE 110 

5.  MARYLAND 116 

6.  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  CAROLINA 121 

7.  GEORGIA 126 

8.  LOUISIANA .......       129 

9.  CUSTOMS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  COLONIES 131 

NEW  ENGLAND 131 

THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES 138 

THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES  .                                                                       .  141 


PART  IV. 
THE  ERA  OF  COLONIAL  WARS. 

1.  KING  WILLIAM'S  WAR .145 

2.  QUEEN  ANNE'S  WAR 148 

3.  KING  GEORGE'S  WAR 149 

4.  THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR    ,  ....    152 


PART   V. 
FROM  COLONIES  TO  UNITED  STATES. 

1.  A  NEW  KING  AND  A  NEW  POLICY 172 

2.  THE  COLONIES  IN  KEBELLION 188 

3.  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 203 

4.  THE  WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH 223 

5  THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NATION 233 

6  THE  CONDITION  OF  THE  COUNTRY 24! 


PART   VI. 
THE  EARLY  PERIOD  OF  THE  REPUBLIC. 

1.  WASHINGTON'S  ADMINISTRATION 247 

2.  JOHN  ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION •    .   256 

8.  JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATION •    •    •   261 

4.  MADISON'S  ADMINISTRATION 270 

6.  THE  SECOND  WAR  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN ,.  •  274 

v 


CONTENTS.  vii 

PART   VII. 
THIRTY  YEARS  OF  PEACE  AND   PROGRESS. 

PAGE 

1.  MONROE'S  ADMINISTRATION 286 

2.  JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION 295 

3.  JACKSON'S  ADMINISTRATION 299 

4.  VAN  BUREN'S  ADMINISTRATION 307 

5.  THE  HARRISON  AND  TYLER  ADMINISTRATIONS  .                         .  311 


PART   VIII. 

THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

1.  FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION 320 

2.  THE  TAYLOR  AND  FILLMORE  ADMINISTRATIONS 330 

3.  PIERCE'S  ADMINISTRATION 334 

4.  BUCHANAN'S  ADMINISTRATION 340 


PART   IX. 

THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

1.  LINCOLN'S  ADMINISTRATION 348 

2.  THE  NORTH  AND  THE  SOUTH 352 

3.  THE  OPENING  or  THE  WAR 355 

4.  THE  WAR  IN  KENTUCKY  AND  TENNESSEE 363 

5.  THE  EAST  IN  1862 371 

6.  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OP  1863 380 

7.  THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS  OP  THE  WAR 390 

8.  THE  COUNTRY  DURING  THE  WAR  .  407 


PART   X. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NATION. 

1.  JOHNSON'S  ADMINISTRATION     . 412 

2.  GRANT'S  ADMINISTRATION 418 

3.  HAYES'S  ADMINISTRATION    ,  428 


viii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

4.  THE  GARFIELD  AND  ARTHUR  ADMINISTRATIONS 432 

5.  CLEVELAND'S  ADMINISTRATION 435 

6.  BENJAMIN  HARRISON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  .   433 

7.  CLEVELAND'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION  .    .    „    .  445 

8.  McKiNLEY's  ADMINISTRATION 450 

9.  KOOSEVELT'S  ADMINISTRATION  .  .   465 


PART  XI. 

STAGES  OF   PROGRESS   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1.  GOVERNMENTAL  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  COLONIES 469 

2.  LATER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  GOVERNMENT 476 

3.  POLITICAL  PARTIES 482 

4.  THE  STORY  OP  SLAVERY     486 

5.  PROGRESS  OF  FINANCE 493 

6.  POPULATION  AND  IMMIGRATION ,    ...  501 

7.  TRANSPORTATION  AND  POSTAL  FACILITIES 507 

8.  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS  AND  DEVELOPMENT 515 

9.  LITERATURE,  SCIENCE,  AND  ART 525 

10.  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS 530 

11.  THE  NATION  OF  TO-DAY 535 

12.  THE   MAYFLOWER  COMPACT 542 

13.  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 543 

14.  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 548 

15.  TABLE   OF  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES 565 

16.  TABLE  OF  THE  PRESIDENTS 566 

17.  SUMMARY  OF  CHRONOLOGY 567 

18.  LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  KEFERENCE 573 

19.  QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW 575 

20.  INDEX  ....  .....       .585 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

The  ships  of  the  Northmen 13 

Christopher  Columbus 18 

The  ships  of  Columbus 21 

Indian  chief 28 

Indian  woman 29 

Indian  pottery 30 

Indian  woman  weaving 30 

Indian  bow  and  arrow 31 

Indian  quiver  and  bow-case 32 

An  Indian  shield 33 

Indians  building  a  canoe 34 

Penn  treaty  wampum  belt 36 

Indian  stone  implements 37 

Indian  implements  of  shell 37 

A  Pueblo  habitation 39 

Fort  San  Marco,  St.  Augustine 47 

The  Heights  of  Quebec 50 

A  French  woodsman 62 

Sir  Walter  Ealeigh ' 55 

The  Half-Moon  in  the  Hudson 58 

John  Smith 63 

Smith  meeting  the  Indians 64 

Pocahontas 68 

John  Winthrop 84 

Placing  the  charter  in  the  oak 100 

Peter  Stuyvesant 105 

William  Penn 110 

Early  Philadelphia 112 

Penn's  treaty  with  the  Indians 113 

Proprietary  seal  of  Pennsylvania 115 

Cecilius  Calvert  (Lord  Baltimore) 116 

James  Oglethorpe 127 

Costumes  of  French  settlers 130 

ix 


X  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

A  block-house 133 

Pioneer  dwelling 134 

Costumes  of  the  Puritans 136 

Scene  in  New  Amsterdam 139 

Dutch  settlers 140 

Colonial  fireplace 141 

Costume  of  English  settlers 142 

Braddock's  defeat 158 

Expulsion  of  the  Acadians 161 

General  Wolfe 167 

A  stamp-act  stamp 178 

Patrick  Henry 179 

Faneuil  Hall 182 

Boston  tea-party 186 

Revolutionary  soldier 191 

John  Hancock 195 

Signing  the  Declaration  of  Independence 202 

Washington's  army  crossing  the  Delaware  '. 207 

The  Chew  House 211 

Washington's  head-quarters  at  Valley  Forge 212 

Pine-tree  and  rattlesnake  flags 215 

Anthony  Wayne 221 

John  Paul  Jones 222 

The  Andre  captors 'medal 226 

Nathaniel  Greene N 227 

Surrender  of  Cprnwallis 232 

Daniel  Boone   .' 233 

Independence  Hall  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution 238 

Mississippi  flat-boat 242 

Spinning-wheel 244 

George  Washington 248 

Alexander  Hamilton 251 

Mount  Vernon 255 

John  Adams 256 

John  Marshall 260 

Thomas  Jefferson 261 

Stephen  Decatur 262 

James  Madison 270 

Capture  of  the  Cyane  and  Levant  by  the  Constitution 277 

James  Monroe 286 

Henry  Clay 291 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  xi 

PAGE 

Lock  on  the  Erie  Canal 293 

Marquis  de  Lafayette 294 

John  Quincy  Adams « 296 

Andrew  Jackson # 300 

John  C.  Calhoun ' 301 

Daniel  Webster 301 

Chicago  in  1832 306 

Martin  Van  Buren 308 

William  Henry  Harrison 311 

John  Tyler 312 

James  K.  Polk 320 

Winfield  Scott 324 

Assault  on  Chapultepec 325 

San  Francisco  in  1848 327 

Zachary  Taylor 330 

Millard  Fillmore 332 

Franklin  Pierce 334 

James  Buchanan 340 

Laying  the  Atlantic  cable 344 

Jefferson  Davis 346 

Abraham  Lincoln 348 

United  States  flag 356 

Confederate  flags „..,..  356 

Battle  of  the  Monitor  and  Merrimac 362 

George  B.  McClellan 373 

Robert  E.  Lee 375 

Confederate  works  at  Fredericksburg 378 

A  scene  at  Gettysburg 384 

Night  scene  on  the  retreat  from  Gettysburg 385 

Battle  of  Chickamauga 388 

Philip  Sheridan 394 

William  T.  Sherman 395 

Sherman's  march  to  the  sea 399 

Battle  in  Mobile  Bay 401 

The  last  Confederate  battle  line , 405 

Andrew  Johnson 412 

Ulysses  S.  Grant 418 

Meeting  of  the  Union  and  Central  Pacific  Railroads 420 

Battle  at  the  Little  Big  Horn 424 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes 428 

James  A.  Garfield  .                                                                                   .  432 


xii  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Chester  A.  Arthur 433 

Grover  Cleveland 436 

Benjamin  Harrison „  439 

The  Court  of  Honor 444 

Fleet  of  United  States  war-vessels  in  harbor 449 

William  McKinley 451 

Theodore  Eoosevelt 465 

Benjamin  Franklin c    „    .    .  476 

Pine-tree  shilling 495 

Continental  money     ....'» ,    .    o    .    -    .  495 

An  emigrant  train 504 

The  Conestoga  wagon <,....  509 

Fulton's  steamboat 509 

The  ocean  steamer  of  to-day 510 

The  locomotive  of  to-day c 512 

The  pony  express    . 514 

Cutting  grass  with  a  scythe 515 

Threshing  with  the  flail 516 

Colonial  plough 518 

Steam-plough . 518 

Steam  threshing-machine 519 

Harvesting  and  binding  machine .  520 

Power-loom 523 

An  irrigation  canal 535 


MAPS. 


PAGE 

United  States  (colored) Front  of  volume. 

Acquisitions  of  territory  (colored) End  of  volume. 

Early  French  settlements  in  Canada 49 

English,  French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  claims 59 

The  middle  colonies 70 

New  England  and  New  Netherland 91 

Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware 114 

The  Carolinas  and  Georgia 122 

French  settlements  in  the  West  and  South 129 

English  territory  before  the  French  and  Indian  War 152 

The  Fort  Duquesne  campaign .    ,   .    .  156 

The  seat  of  war  in  New  York 163 

The  siege  of  Quebec 165 

English  territory  after  the  French  and  Indian  War 168 

Boston  and  vicinity 194 

The  New  Jersey  campaign 206 

General  map  of  the  Revolutionary  War  (colored) 209 

Burgoyne's  route 213 

Siege  of  Yorktown 231 

Battle-fields  on  the  Niagara 279 

Northern  battle-fields  of  the  war  of  1812-15 281 

New  Orleans  and  the  Creek  War 283 

War  with  Mexico 321 

Battle-fields  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee 363 

McClellan's  campaign,  Yorktown  to  Richmond 372 

Battle-fields  of  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania 377 

Plan  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg     .    . 382 

Grant's  Yicksburg  campaign 387 

Grant's  campaign,  Wilderness  to  Petersburg 391 

Sherman's  march,  Atlanta  to  Raleigh 398 

Hawaii 446 

Cuba 452 

Philippine  Islands 460 

Puerto  Rico  .                                                                                                  .  540 


HISTORY 


OF 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


PART   I. 
DISCOVERY  AND  INHABITANTS  OF  AMERICA. 


i.  THE  ERA  OF  DISCOVERY. 

Mediaeval  Conditions. — If  we  could  go  back  to  a  period 
more  than  four  hundred  years  ago  we  should  find  Europe 
in  a  very  different  condition  from  what  travellers  see  there 
to-day.  Then  its  population  was  much  smaller,  its  wealth 
much  less.  There  were  little  commerce,  little  enterprise, 
and  little  liberty.  The  great  industries  of  to-day  were  un 
known.  Wars  were  common,  oppression  and  injustice 
were  universal.  People  could  neither  do  nor  think  as  they 
pleased.  They  must  accept  the  religion  provided  for  them 
by  their  rulers  or  suffer  imprisonment  and  torture.  Super 
stition  and  ignorance  everywhere  prevailed.  Even  the  most 
learned  men  knew  very  little  of  the  earth  upon  which  they 
lived.  Europe  was  fairly  well  known,  and  something  was 
known  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia  and  Northern  Africa  ; 
but  the  vast  oceans  which  are  now  the  highways  of  com 
merce  had  never  been  traversed,  and  no  one  had  dreamed 
of  the  great  continent  of  America. 

11 


12  DISCOVERY  AND   INHABITANTS  OF  AMERICA. 

The  Northmen. — It  is  true  that  America  had  been  visited 
from  Europe  more  than  four  hundred  years  earlier.  But 
nothing  of  this  was  known  in  Southern  Europe  until  cen 
turies  afterward.  The  people  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  often  spoken  of  as  the  Northmen,  were  then  rude 
and  barbarous  in  character,  but  had  long  been  skilful  and 
daring  navigators.  In  their  small,  open  vessels  they  did  not 
fear  to  make  long  voyages  and  venture  far  out  to  sea.  For 
centuries  they  made  piratical  raids  upon  the  countries  of 
the  south,  and  about  the  year  850  A.D.  one  of  their  vessels 
was  driven  by  a  storm  to  Iceland,  an  island  of  the  far 
northern  seas.  Here  they  formed  a  settlement  in  874,  from 
which  their  light  ships  ventured  farther  west,  till  at  length 
one  of  them  reached  the  southern  coast  of  Greenland.1 
Here  a  colony  was  formed  in  986  near  Cape  Farewell, 
which  lasted  about  five  hundred  years.2 

The  Continent  Discovered. — Not  long  afterward  a  ves 
sel  on  its  way  to  Greenland  was  driven  from  its  course  by  a 
storm,  and  its  crew  saw  land  far  to  the  south.  In  the  year 
1000  Leif,  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  the  discoverer  of  Greenland, 
sailed  south  to  explore  this  land.  He  landed  at  several 
points,  and  at  length  reached  a  region  where  wild  grapes 
grew  in  abundance,  for  which  reason  he  named  it  Vinland 
(Vine-land).  Where  Vinland  was  we  do  not  know.  It  may 
have  been  as  far  south  as  Massachusetts,  or  it  may  have 
been  farther  north.3 

1  In  their  voyages  the  Northmen  are  said  to  have  often  taken  ravens 
with  them.     When  in  doubt  where  to  find  land  they  set  the  birds  free 
and  followed  the  direction  of  their  flight. 

2  The  ruins  of  several  villages  and  churches,  built  of  stone,  still 
remain  at  this  locality,  but  the  present  settlements  in  Greenland  were 
made  at  a  later  date. 

3  Many  supposed  relics  of  the  Northmen  have  been  found  in  New 
England.     The  most  famous  of  these  is  a  curious  old  tower,  called 


THE   ERA   OF   DISCOVERY. 


13 


Other  Voyages. — Other  voyages  were  made  to  V in 
land,  and  one  explorer  tried  to  found  a  colony  there,  but 
the  savage  people  of  the  country  gave  the  colonists  so 
much  trouble  that  after  three  years  they  went  away.1  Not 


THE  SHIPS  OF  THE  NORTHMEN. 


Jong  afterward  all  visits  to  Vinland  ceased.  At  a  later  date 
the  story  of  this  discovery  was  written  down  in  Iceland, 
Three  manuscript  accounts  still  exist,  which  contain  much 


the  "Old  Stone  Mill,"  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island.  But  it  is  now  be 
lieved  that  this  was  built  by  Governor  Benedict  Arnold  about  1675. 
Another  is  an  inscription  in  picture-writing  on  Dighton  Rock,  near 
Taunton,  Massachusetts.  But  this  is  now  known  to  be  an  Indian 
inscription.  No  undoubted  relic  of  the  Northmen  has  been  found. 

1  Snorri,  the  son  of  one  of  these  settlers,  was  the  first  child  of  white 
parents  born  on  this  continent.  It  is  interesting  to  learn  that  from 
this  first  "  American"  descended  a  family  of  much  note  in  the  north. 
Thorwaldsen,  the  famous  sculptor  of  Denmark,  is  said  to  have  been 
one  of  his  descendants. 


14  DISCOVERY  AND  INHABITANTS  OF  AMERICA. 

information  about  the  country,  its  plants  and  animals,  the 
habits  of  its  people,  etc.  But  nothing  of  this  was  known 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  the  existence  of  the  continent  was 
in  time  forgotten  in  the  north,  and  it  remained  to  be  dis 
covered  over  again. 

Changed  Conditions  in  Europe. — By  the  fifteenth  cen 
tury  Europe  had  gained  a  greater  degree  of  civilized  devel 
opment.  Its  nations  had  become  more  strongly  organized, 
its  kings  had  gained  more  power  and  authority,  its  mer 
chants  and  artisans  were  rising  in  importance,  and  its  peo 
ple  were  no  longer  helpless  slaves  of  the  lords.  Peaceful 
enterprise  was  beginning  to  take  the  place  of  war.  Human 
knowledge  was  growing,  learned  men  appeared  outside  the 
monasteries,  and  there  arose  a  desire  to  learn  more  about 
the  world. 

The  Eastward  Movement. — The  vast  continent  of  Asia, 
stretching  thousands  of  miles  to  the  east,  was  little  known 
to  the  men  of  that  age,  though  there  had  long  been  trade 
with  its  civilized  nations.  After  the  Crusades,1  which  lasted 
from  about  1100  to  1300,  this  trade  grew  more  active. 
Caravans  crossed  the  deserts,  bringing  the  shawls,  silks, 
muslins,  spices,  and  pearls  of  Persia  and  India  to  Alexan 
dria  in  Egypt  and  to  the  ports  of  the  Black  Sea.  Thence 
merchant  vessels  bore  them  to  Venice,  Genoa,  and  other 
European  ports. 

Marco  Polo. — Travellers  also  made  their  way  through 
Asia.  The  chief  of  these  was  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian,  who 


1  The  Crusades  were  great  military  expeditions  from  Europe  to  Asia 
to  defend  the  rights  of  Christian  pilgrims  in  Palestine  and  recover  the 
Holy  Land  from  the  Mohammedans.  Thousands  of  men  perished  in 
these  efforts,  but  Jerusalem  and  Palestine  were  not  recovered.  The 
name  "  crusaders"  was  given  to  these  warriors  because  they  wore  the 
sign  of  the  cross. 


THE   ERA  OF   DISCOVERY.  15 

journeyed  overland  through  Central  Asia  to  China,  where 
he  remained  for  many  years,  returning  in  1295.  His  ad 
ventures  were  described  in  a  book  which  was  full  of  in 
formation  of  great  interest  to  the  people  of  Europe.  In 
this  book  was  given  the  first  account  of  the  island  country 
of  Cipango,  or  Japan,  which  has  lately  become  so  impor 
tant.  The  story  told  by  Marco  Polo  went  far  to  arouse  an 
interest  in  the  discovery  of  new  countries.1 

The  Turks. — In  1453  the  Turks  captured  Constantinople 
and  put  an  end  to  the  Asiatic  commerce  of  Genoa,  whose 
fleets  were  obliged  to  pass  that  city  on  their  way  to  the 
Black  Sea.  The  ships  of  Venice  traded  with  Alexandria, 
and  their  commerce  continued  longer.  But  it  also  was  at 
length  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Turks,  and  the  trade  of 
Europe  with  Asia,  which  had  existed  for  many  centuries, 
was  destroyed. 

New  Routes  of  Commerce. — The  luxuries  obtained 
from  Asia  had  now  become  necessary  to  the  comfort  of 
the  people  of  Europe.  Yet  unless  other  trade  routes  could 


1  Marco  Polo  was  the  son  of  Niccolo  Polo,  who  with  his  brother 
Matteo  made  a  journey  through  Asia  between  1255  and  1269.  They 
went  again  about  1272  with  young  Marco,  who  was  the  first  European 
to  enter  China,  and  who  gained  high  favor  with  the  Great  Khan  of 
Tartary.  They  returned  to  Venice  in  1295,  bringing  great  wealth  in 
precious  stones,  but  dressed  in  ragged  clothes,  which  they  had  worn 
to  prevent  being  robbed.  They  invited  their  friends  and  relatives, 
who  had  forgotten  them,  to  a  costly  banquet,  where  they  appeared  in 
the  richest  garments.  After  the  feast  they  ripped  open  their  old 
clothes,  and  from  them  fell  an  untold  wealth  in  diamonds,  rubies,  and 
other  gems.  They  were  quickly  remembered  after  that.  Marco  was 
afterward  taken  prisoner  in  a  battle  with  the  Genoese  and  kept  long 
in  prison.  While  there  he  told  the  story  of  his  travels  to  a  fellow- 
captive,  who  wrote  it  down.  The  book,  when  published,  made  a  great 
sensation,  and  is  still  of  much  value. 


16  DISCOVERY  AND   INHABITANTS   OF   AMERICA. 

be  discovered  all  this  rich  commerce  would  be  lost.  For 
tunately,  at  that  period  navigators  were  growing  more  bold. 
The  mariner's  compass  had  been  brought  into  use ;  the 
astrolabe — an  instrument  for  reckoning  latitude — soon  after 
was  employed  ;  sailors  no  longer  felt  it  necessary  to  creep 
along  shore  as  of  old,  but  began  to  venture  daringly  far 
from  sight  of  land.  The  route  to  Asia  by  way  of  the  Medi 
terranean  was  closed  against  the  ships  of  Europe.  Could 
not  a  new  route  be  found  by  way  of  the  great  ocean  of  the 
west? 

Portuguese  Enterprise. — Portugal  was  one  of  the  most 
enterprising  nations  of  that  period.  It  was  not  content  to 
let  the  cities  of  Italy  enjoy  all  the  trade  of  Asia,  and  had 
conceived  the  idea  that  India  might  be  reached  by  sailing 
around  the  continent  of  Africa.  This  enterprise  began  in 
1418,  under  King  Henry,  known  as  Henry  the  Navigator. 
Step  by  step  the  ships  of  Portugal  made  their  way  down 
the  African  coast.  Madeira,  the  Azores,  and  other  islands 
were  discovered,  but  it  was  not  until  1471  that  a  Portuguese 
captain  reached  and  crossed  the  equator.  It  had  been 
supposed  that  Africa  extended  no  farther  south ;  but  its 
coast  was  found  to  stretch  still  southward,  and  the  navigators 
of  Portugal  began  to  lose  heart.1 


1  The  southern  cape  of  Africa  was  finally  reached  by  Bartholomew 
Diaz  in  1487.  He  called  it  the  Cape  of  Storms,  but  the  king  renamed 
it  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  1497 — after  the  discovery  of  America — 
Vasco  da  Gama  sailed  round  this  cape  and  entered  the  Indian  Ocean, 
up  which  he  passed  northward  to  Hindustan.  He  returned  in  the 
summer  of  1499  with  a  cargo  of  the  spices,  silks,  jewels,  and  other 
rich  products  of  that  land  of  wealth.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a 
valuable  Portuguese  commerce  with  the  East.  Bartholomew  Colum 
bus,  the  younger  brother  of  the  great  discoverer,  accompanied  Diaz  on 
his  voyage. 


THE   ERA   OF  DISCOVERY.  17 

Christopher  Columbus. — Among  the  enterprising  spirits 
of  that  age  was  one  who  has  made  himself  famous  for  all 
time.  This  was  the  celebrated  Christopher  Columbus  [Italian 
name  Cristoforo  Colombo  (cris-t&f  o-ro  co-l6mfbo),  Spanish 
name  Cristoval  Colon  (crfe-to'vtil  cd-lon')~\.  He  was  a  native 
of  Genoa,  Italy,  where  he  was  born  about  1435,  or  per 
haps  several  years  later,  the  date  of  his  birth  being  uncer 
tain.  He  became  a  sailor  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  for 
years  was  engaged  in  commerce  and  adventure.  He  sailed 
with  several  Portuguese  expeditions  down  the  coast  of 
Africa,  and  may  have  sailed  as  far  north  as  Iceland.  He 
says,  u  In  1477  I  navigated  one  hundred  leagues  beyond 
Thule"  (supposed  to  be  Iceland). 

A  New  Idea. — Columbus  was  a  thinker  and  student. 
In  common  with  the  best  geographers  of  that  century,  he 
believed  that  the  earth  was  round,  and  advanced  the  prop 
osition  that  by  sailing  due  west  across  the  ocean  India 
might  be  reached.  To  most  of  the  people  then  living  this 
seemed  an  incredible  absurdity.  To  reach  the  east  by  sail 
ing  to  the  west !  It  appeared  the  talk  of  a  madman.  The 
general  belief  was  that  the  earth  was  flat  and  inhabited  on 
its  upper  side  only.  But  Columbus  was  persistent  in  his 
belief,1  though  he  had  no  conception  of  the  real  size  of  the 
earth.  He  imagined  that  a  few  thousand  miles  would  bring 
him  to  the  shores  of  Asia.  Had  he  dreamed  of  the  vast 
width  of  space  that  lay  between  Europe  and  Asia  in  this 

1  Columbus  had  spent  some  time  in  the  island  of  Madeira,  and  there 
had  been  told  of  strange  objects  seen  by  sailors.  These  included  pieces 
of  carved  wood,  seeds  of  unknown  plants,  canes  long  enough  to  hold 
four  quarts  of  wine  between  their  joints,  and,  more  striking  still,  the 
bodies  of  two  men,  differing  in  face  and  color  from  the  people  of 
Europe.  Westerly  winds  had  brought  these  ashore,  and  they  seemed 
to  come  from  lands  to  the  west. 

2 


18  DISCOVERY  AND   INHABITANTS   OF  AMERICA. 

direction  he  might  have  been  afraid  to  venture  upon  such 
mighty  seas. 

Columbus  Seeks  Aid. — The  Genoese  adventurer  had  a 
very  difficult  task  before  him.  He  had  no  money  himself, 
and  he  spent  many  years  of  his  life  in  trying  to  induce  gov 
ernments  to  aid  his  proposed  enterprise.  He  first  wished 
to  go  as  the  agent  of  his  native  city,  Genoa,  but  the  authori 
ties  rejected  his  plan  as  folly  or  madness.  He  then  tried 
Portugal,  where  he  spent  years  in  vain  endeavor.1 

Columbus  in  Spain. — Columbus  left  Portugal  in  1484 
and  proceeded  to  Spain,  which  country  was  then  governed 
by  King  Ferdinand  and  Queen  Isabella, 
who  were  at  war  with  the  Moors,  a  people 
who  had  once  held  nearly  the  whole  of 
Spain.  For  seven  years  he  begged  per 
sistently  for  aid,  but  in  vain.  He  was 
looked  upon  as  a  visionary,  and  the  very 
boys  in  the  street  mocked  him  as  a  lunatic. 
At  length  he  was  permitted  to  lay  his  plans 
before  a  committee  of  learned  men,  but 

CHRISTOPHER    COLUM-  . 

BUS.  only  to  have  them  ridiculed,  the  council 

dismissing  him  as  a  foolish  enthusiast.2 

1  The  Portuguese  king  was  intelligent,  and  at  length  listened  favor 
ably  to  the  statements  of  Columbus,  though  his  geographers  told  him 
that  the  scheme  was  visionary.     King  John,  who  still  thought  it  worth 
trying,  but  did  not  wish  to  give  Columbus  the  high  reward  he  de 
manded  in  case  of  success,  played  the  traitor  to  him,  and  secretly  sent 
out  a  vessel  to  try  the  westward  route,  giving  the  captain  the  charts  of 
C'o>jmbus  as  guides.     The  captain  sailed  for  a  few  days  westward  into 
the  unknown  ocean,  and  then,  frightened  by  stormy  weather  and  what 
seemed  an  endless  waste  of  waters,  returned  and  laughed  to  scorn  the 
scheme  of  the  adventurer. 

2  They  could  not  be  made  to  believe  that  the  earth  was  round.     "  Do 
you  mean  to  tell  us,"  they  asked,  "  that  on  the  other  side  the  rain  falls 


THE   ERA  OF   DISCOVERY.  19 

Other  Appeals  for  Aid. — Columbus  before  this  had  sent 
his  brother  Bartholomew  to  England  to  seek  for  aid.  He 
now  himself  set  out  for  France,  but  stopped  at  the  convent 
of  La  Rabida,1  near  the  little  town  of  Palos,  where  he  was 
forced  to  beg  bread  for  himself  and  his  little  son,  who  ac 
companied  him.  Here  he  found  a  friend  in  the  prior,  who 
had  influence  with  Queen  Isabella,  and  wrote  to  her. 
Columbus  was  called  back  to  the  court,  but  again  met  with 
disappointment,  and  once  more  set  out  for  France.  He 
had  not  gone  far  when  a  messenger  recalled  him.  Some 
of  his  friends  had  pleaded  his  cause  with  the  queen,  and 
she  became  so  earnest  in  his  behalf  that  it  is  said  she  offered 
to  pledge  her  jewels  to  raise  the  money. 

The  Vessels  Supplied. — The  queen  did  not  need  to 
pledge  her  jewels.  There  was  money  enough  in  the  treas 
ury,  despite  the  cost  of  the  war.  The  part  of  the  money 
which  Columbus  was  to  supply  was  advanced  by  some 
friends  at  Palos.  But  though  ships  were  ready,  crews  were 
not  easily  to  be  had.  Sailors  were  ignorant  and  supersti 
tious.  They  feared  the  perils  of  unknown  seas.  But  at 
length  three  small  vessels,  the  Santa  Maria,  the  Pinta,  and 
the  Nina  (nen'yaK),  were  obtained,  with  crews  to  man  them. 

upward  and  men  walk  with  their  heads  downward  ?  If  the  earth  were 
round,  as  you  say,  your  ships,  in  going  west,  would  sail  down  a  curved 
surface,  and  would  have  to  sail  up-hill  to  return  to  Spain.  The  torrid 
zone,  through  which  you  must  pass,  is  a  region  of  fire,  where  the  very 
waters  boil.  And  who  can  say  what  dense  fogs,  what  frightful  mon 
sters,  what  unimagined  terrors  exist  in  these  unknown  seas?" 

1  A  fac-simile  of  the  La  Rabida  convent,  and  also  one  of  the  Santa 
Maria,  the  flag-ship  of  Columbus  in  his  famous  voyage,  were  shown  at 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  in  1893.  These  con 
tained  many  ancient  relics,  and  were  among  the  most  attractive  features 
of  the  fair.  The  vessel  was  one  in  which  few  men  would  venture  to 
cross  the  ocean  to-day. 


20  DISCOVERY  AND  INHABITANTS  OF  AMERICA. 

Only  the  largest  of  these,  the  Santa  Maria,  of  about  one 
hundred  tons  burden,  had  a  complete  deck.  The  others 
were  open  amidships.  The  crews  consisted  of  ninety  sailors, 
and  there  were  also  thirty  gentlemen  adventurers  and 
priests.  With  this  small  fleet,  on  the  3d  of  August,  1492, 
Columbus  set  sail  from  Palos,  Spain,  on  the  most  memorable 
voyage  that  had  ever  been  undertaken. 

The  Voyage. — The  fleet  sailed  first  to  the  Canary  Islands. 
One  of  the  vessels  was  injured  on  the  way,  and  the  expedi 
tion  was  detained  there  a  month  for  repairs.  On  the  6th 
of  September  they  again  sailed  boldly  into  the  "  Sea  of 
Darkness,"  as  the  Atlantic  was  then  commonly  called.  As 
the  land  faded  from  the  eyes  of  the  sailors  some  of  them 
burst  into  tears,  and  the  boldest  were  full  of  superstitious 
fears.  What  monstrous  creatures  they  would  meet  in  those 
untried  waters,  what  black  fogs  or  terrifying  visions  they 
would  encounter,  none  could  tell.  They  might  glide  down 
a  watery  curve  up  which  no  ship  could  climb  again.  They 
might  reach  the  edge  of  the  earth's  surface  and  plunge  to 
swift  destruction.  The  wind  which  carried  them  onward 
blew  steadily  to  the  west.  Could  they  return  against  this 
persistent  wind?  The  unknown  lay  before  them,  and  the 
unknown  is  the  abode  of  terrors. 

New  Difficulties. — As  they  went  on  the  compass  to  which 
they  trusted  for  safety  ceased  to  point  directly  to  the  north.1 
Here  was  a  new  cause  for  fear.  Ten  days  after  leaving  the 
Canary  Islands  they  entered  what  is  now  known  as  the 

1  It  has  long  been  known  that  the  needle  of  the  compass  does  not 
always  point  directly  north.  The  magnetic  pole  is  hundreds  of  miles 
away  from  the  north  pole,  and  only  where  the  two  poles  are  in  a  line 
does  the  needle  point  north.  In  other  places  it  points  east  or  west  of 
north.  In  Spain  at  that  day  the  needle  pointed  nearly  due  north,  and 
hence  the  sailors  were  alarmed  to  see  it  deviate. 


THE   ERA   OF   DISCOVERY. 


21 


Sargasso  Sea.  Here  were  vast  tracts  of  sea-weed  which 
filled  them  with  fresh  terror,  for  they  seemed  to  be  in  a 
shallow  sea,  in  which  the  vessels  might  be  wrecked  on  bars 
or  plunge  deep  into  mud-banks.1 

Signs  of  Land. — Columbus  alone  kept  firm  of  heart,  and 
did  his  utmost  to  cheer  up  his  despondent  followers.  He 
shrewdly  deceived  them 
as  to  the  distance  they 
had  gone.  As  they  went 
on,  signs  of  land  ap 
peared.  Pelicans  and 
other  birds  were  seen. 
The  clouds  looked  like 
distant  shores.  But  as 
day  by  day  passed  with 
out  land  appearing  the 
crews  lost  all  hope,  and 
secret  plans  were  made 
to  throw  their  leader 
overboard  and  sail  for 
home  again. 

Fortunately,  the  signs 
of  land  grew  more  de 
cided.  A  branch  with 
fresh  berries  was  seen  THE  SHIPS  OF  COLUMBUS. 

floating   by.     A  carved 

stick  was  picked  up  from  the  waters.  Other  floating  objects 
were  observed.  Hope  replaced  despair.  At  length,  about 
ten  o'clock  on  the  evening  of  October  11,  1492,  Columbus 


1  The  Sargasso  Sea  is  now  known  to  be  due  to  great  currents  in  the 
Atlantic,  which  here  whirl  round  in  a  vast  circle  and  carry  to  this 
point  floating  sea-weed  from  far-distant  waters.  The  weed  remains 
alive  and  many  small  ocean  animals  dwell  in  its  midst. 


22  DISCOVERY   AND   INHABITANTS   OF  AMERICA. 

saw  a  distant  light,  which  moved  as  if  it  were  carried.  At 
two  o'clock  on  the  following  morning  the  glad  cry  of 
"  Land  !"  came  from  one  of  the  other  vessels.  A  sailor  had 
seen  land  in  the  clear  moonlight.  When  day  broke  the  joyful 
mariners  beheld  close  before  them  a  low,  green  shore,  on 
which  the  sunlight  gleamed  like  the  beacon  light  of  hope. 
The  voyage  was  at  an  end.  A  new  world  lay  before  their 
eyes. 

On  Shore  in  the  New  World. — On  the  morning  of  Fri 
day,  the  12th  of  October,  1492,  the  happy  discoverer  set 
foot  on  the  shores  of  the  new  land.  He  was  clad  in  a 
full  suit  of  armor,  and  bore  in  his  hand  the  royal  ban 
ner  of  Spain.  The  brothers  Pinzon  (pen-thonf\  captains  of 
the  other  vessels,  bore  banners  of  the  green  cross,  a  de 
vice  of  his  own.  Kneeling  on  the  shore,  he  kissed  the 
ground  with  tears  of  joy,  while  the  mutinous  members 
of  the  crews  fell  weeping  at  his  feet  and  humbly  begged 
his  pardon. 

Rising,  he  took  possession  of  the  land  in  the  name  of  the 
monarchs  of  Spain,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  San  Salvador.1 
It  was  an  island  he  had  discovered,  as  he  soon  learned.  It 
was  inhabited  by  a  gentle-faced  people,  of  reddish  com 
plexion,  and  unlike  any  men  Columbus  had  seen  in  his 
many  voyages.  They  had  a  few  gold  ornaments,  and  were 
asked  by  signs  where  gold  was  to  be  found.  In  reply  they 
pointed  to  the  southward.  The  simple  islanders  supposed 
the  ships  to  be  great  white-winged  birds,  and  believed  that 
their  white-faced  visitors  had  come  from  heaven. 

The  Voyage  Continued. — Leaving  San  Salvador,  the  fleet 

1  The  natives  called  this  island  Guanahani  (gwft-n&-hti/n$).  It  was 
one  of  the  group  of  the  Bahamas,  but  it  is  not  sure  which.  Most  prob 
ably  it  was  the  one  now  known  as  Watling's  Island. 


THE  ERA  OF  DISCOVERY.  23 

sailed  southward,  passing  other  islands,  and  soon  reaching 
the  great  islands  of  Cuba  and  Hayti.  On  the  latter  island, 
which  Columbus  named  Hispaniola,  the  Santa  Maria  was 
wrecked.  Here  Columbus  built  a  fort  and  planted  a  small 
colony,  and  then  set  sail  for  Spain. 

The  Belief  of  Columbus. — Columbus  never  dreamed 
that  he  had  discovered  a  new  continent.  He  believed  that 
it  was  Asia  he  had  reached.  The  islands  he  thought  to  be 
either  those  of  Japan  or  others  off  the  coast  of  India.  Cuba 
he  supposed  to  be  the  mainland  of  India.  He  therefore 
called  the  dark-skinned  natives  Indians.  By  this  name, 
which  is  based  on  a  wrong  conception,  they  are  still  known. 
He  asked  everywhere  for  the  spices,  jewels,  and  gold  of 
Asia,  and  was  disappointed  in  finding  none.  He  sent  par 
ties  into  the  interior,  and  was  astonished  that  no  trace  of 
the  cities  or  civilization  of  Asia  could  be  discovered.  He 
sent  an  expedition  into  Cuba  to  visit  a  great  chief,  whom 
he  supposed  to  be  the  King  or  Khan  of  Tartary.  To  the 
day  of  his  death  he  believed  that  it  was  Asia  he  had 
reached. 

Reception  of  Columbus  in  Spain. — Columbus  reached 
the  port  of  Palos  on  his  return  on  the  15th  of  March,  1493. 
The  news  of  his  discovery  spread  rapidly  through  the  land, 
and  was  hailed  everywhere  with  joy.  Wherever  he  ap 
peared  exulting  crowds  gathered  and  the  bells  were  loudly 
rung.  His  journey  to  Barcelona,  where  the  court  then 
was,  seemed  like  a  triumphal  procession.  The  king  and 
queen  received  him  with  the  highest  honor,  and  listened  in 
wonder  to  the  story  of  his  discoveries.  He  displayed  to 
them  the  gold,  the  new  plants,  the  unknown  birds  and 
beasts,  the  curious  weapons  and  utensils,  of  the  new- 
discovered  country,  and  nine  of  the  natives  whom  he  had 
brought  to  Spain.  In  the  end  the  monarchs  fell  on  their 


24  DISCOVERY   AND   INHABITANTS   OF  AMERICA. 

knees  and  thanked  God  for  the  honor  conferred  upon  their 
kingdom  by  this  great  achievement. 

Further  Honors. — Columbus  was  given  the  title  of  Don 
and  treated  as  a  grandee  of  Spain.  He  rode  in  the  streets 
at  the  king's  side.  On  sea  he  ranked  as  admiral,  and  in 
the  new  world  he  was  the  king's  viceroy,  and  was  to  receive 
a  tenth  of  all  the  gold,  precious  stones,  and  other  valuables 
found  and  an  eighth  of  all  the  profit  by  trade.  Thus  ended  the 
famous  enterprise  through  which  a  new  continent  was  discov 
ered  and  great  glory  and  wealth  were  conferred  upon  Spain.1 


1  The  remainder  of  the  story  of  Columbus  has  no  immediate  con 
nection  with  the  United  States,  and  may  therefore  be  disposed  of  in  a 
note.  He  made  three  more  voyages  to  this  country.  In  the  second 
(1493-96)  he  discovered  many  more  islands.  He  started  on  a  third  in 
1498.  In  this  he  discovered  the  mainland  of  South  America  and  the 
mouth  of  the  great  Orinoco  River.  Meanwhile,  his  government  of  the 
colonies  had  made  him  many  enemies.  He  also  offended  the  king  and 
queen  by  sending  five  ship-loads  of  Indians  to  Spain  to  be  sold  as 
slaves.  They  were  all  sent  back,  and  a  new  governor  was  sent  to  His- 
paniola.  This  man  seized  Columbus  and  his  two  brothers  and  sent 
them  in  irons  to  Spain.  On  his  arrival  in  that  country  great  indigna 
tion  was  aroused  by  the  outrage,  the  offending  governor  was  removed, 
and  the  property  of  Columbus  restored.  His  office  of  viceroy  was  not 
restored.  He  always  afterward  kept  hanging  in  his  room  the  fetters 
which  had  been  placed  on  his  limbs,  and  requested  that  they  should  be 
buried  with  him.  He  sailed  on  a  fourth  voyage  in  1502,  in  which  he 
traversed  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  sailed  far  along  the  coast  of  Honduras. 
He  still  hoped  to  find  the  riches  of  India,  but  in  vain.  He  returned 
to  Spain  in  1504,  where  he  was  treated  with  shameful  neglect  and 
reduced  to  poverty.  He  died  May  20,  1506.  He  was  first  buried  at 
Valladolid,  but  his  body  was  removed  in  1513  to  Seville,  and  in  1536 
to  the  city  of  San  Domingo  in  Hayti.  In  1796  what  were  supposed  to 
be  his  remains  were  taken  to  Havana.  This  was  probably  a  mistake, 
for  in  1877  a  leaden  coffin  containing  human  bones  was  found  under 
the  Cathedral  of  San  Domingo,  which  bore  the  inscription  in  Spanish, 
"  Illustrious  and  renowned  man,  Christopher  Columbus." 


THE   ERA   OF   DISCOVERY.  25 

Enslavement  of  the  Natives. — The  feeling  of  displeasure 
which  Queen  Isabella  displayed  when  Columbus  sent  Indians 
as  slaves  to  Spain  was  not  shared  by  the  Spanish  colonists. 
The  natives  were  everywhere  reduced  to  slavery,  and  were 
treated  with  such  barbarity  that  they  rapidly  perished.  In 
time  they  all  disappeared  from  the  islands1  which  had  so 
long  been  their  own,  and  negro  slaves  were  brought  from 
Africa  to  take  their  place. 

Naming"  the  Continent. — Many  adventurers  made  their 
way  to  the  new  land  which  Columbus  had  discovered. 
One  of  the  earliest  of  these  was  an  Italian  named  Amerigo 
Vespucci  (ah-md-re* go  ves-poot'che),  a  native  of  Florence 
in  the  service  of  Spain,  who  made  several  voyages  to  this 
country,  and  published  an  account  of  his  observations  in 
1504.  This  was  used  in  1507  by  a  German  geographer 
named  Martin  Waldseemliller  in  a  little  book  called  "  An  In 
troduction  to  Geography."  In  it  was  this  sentence  :  "And 
the  fourth  part  of  the  world  having  been  discovered  by 
Amerigo  or  Americus,  we  may  call  it  Amerige,  or  America."5 

Discovery  of  North  America. — Columbus  was  not  the 
first  to  discover  the  continent  of  America.  He  first  saw 
the  mainland  of  South  America  in  1498.  That  of  North 

1  The  name  by  which  these  islands  are  known,  the  West  Indies, 
arose  from  the  mistaken  idea  of  Columbus  that  they  formed  part  of 
India  in  Asia.  - 

2  Vespucci  had  sailed  far  south  along  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  it  was 
thought  that,  while  Columbus  had  discovered  Asia,  he  had  discovered 
a  continent  south  of  Asia.     It  had  long  been  supposed  that  there  was 
such  a  continent,  which  was  known  as  the  "  fourth  part  of  the  world." 
Thus  it  was  to  Brazil  that  the  name  America  was  first  given.     After 
ward  it  was  applied  to  all  South  America.     Finally  it  became  the 
name  of  the  northern  continent  also.     Thus  without  any  intention 
Columbus  was  deprived  of  the  honor  of  giving  his  name  to  the  great 
continent  he  had  discovered. 


26  DISCOVERY   AND   INHABITANTS  OF   AMERICA. 

America  had  been  seen  the  year  before.  In  1496,  John 
Cabot,  an  Italian  residing  in  Bristol,  England,  proposed  a 
voyage  to  the  new-discovered  country.  He  was  aided  and 
encouraged  in  this  by  Henry  VII.,  King  of  England,  and  set 
sail  westward  in  May,  1497.  He  first  saw  land  on  June  24 
of  that  year.  Where  this  land  was  we  do  not  know. 
Some  think  it  was  Labrador,  others  Cape  Breton  Island. 
He  sailed  hundreds  of  miles  along  the  coast,  his  purpose 
being  to  find  a  northern  passage  to  Asia.  He  discovered 
instead  a  new  continent. 

Sebastian  Cabot's  Voyage. — The  next  year  his  son 
Sebastian,  who  had  accompanied  his  father,  sailed  to 
America  with  several  ships,  and  traced  the  coast  for  a  long 
distance.  He  reached  the  region  of  icebergs  on  the  north, 
and  sailed  south  as  far  as  Cape  Hatteras,  or  perhaps  to 
a  still  lower  latitude.  He  laid  claim  to  all  the  land  dis 
covered  for  Henry  VII.  of  England.1 

Honors  to  the  Cabots. — The  Cabots  gained  great  honor, 
but  little  profit,  from  their  discovery.  John  Cabot  went 
about  dressed  in  silk,  and  was  known  as  the  "Great 
Admiral."  Sebastian  was  also  much  honored,  and  was 
called  u  The  Great  Seaman."  He  lived  to  become  an 
active  explorer,  and  made  afterward  several  important 
voyages  of  discovery  in  the  service  of  Spain. 

The  Line  of  Demarcation. — Pope  Alexander  VI.,  in 
1494,  had  undertaken  to  divide  the  new-discovered  lands 


1  The  account  of  the  voyages  of  the  Cabots  is  very  obscure.  Some 
writers  say  that  John  Cabot  went  with  his  son  in  the  second  voyage  ; 
others  say  that  he  died  before  it  started.  Just  what  lands  they  dis 
covered  is  equally  doubtful.  Sebastian  Cabot  speaks  of  having  seen 
savages  dressed  in  skins,  stags  larger  than  those  in  England,  and  bears 
that  caught  fish  with  their  claws,  while  he  met  with  codfish  in  such 
numbers  that  they  checked  the  speed  of  his  ships. 


THE   ERA   OF   DISCOVERY.  27 

between  Spain  and  Portugal.  A  meridian  line  three  hun 
dred  and  seventy  leagues  Avest  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands 
was  selected,  and  it  was  declared  that  all  heathen  lands 
discovered  east  of  this  "  line  of  demarcation"  should  be 
long  to  Portugal ;  all  those  west  of  it  to  Spain.  It  must 
be  said,  however,  that  the  other  nations  paid  no  attention 
whatever  to  this  line,  though  from  it  Portugal  laid  claim 
to  Brazil. 

Discovery  of  the  Pacific. — Two  further  important  steps 
of  discovery  were  made  in  the  south.  In  the  year  1513 
Balboa,  a  Spanish  adventurer,  crossed  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  in  search  of  a  great  body  of  water  which  the 
natives  told  him  could  be  seen  from  the  tops  of  the  moun 
tains.  After  enduring  severe  hardships  he  reached  the 
summit  of  the  ridge,  and  saw  before  his  eyes  a  mighty 
outreach  of  waters.  He  got  to  the  western  shore  after 
days  of  further  hardship,  and,  wading  into  the  water  with 
a  sword  in  one  .hand  and  a  banner  in  the  other,  he  laid 
claim  to  that  great  ocean  and  all  its  bordering  countries 
for  the  sovereigns  of  Spain.  He  named  it  the  South  Sea. 
To-day,  of  all  this  extensive  claim,  not  a  square  foot  of 
land  belongs  to  Spain. 

The  Voyage  of  Magellan. — In  1519,  Ferdinand  Magel 
lan,  a  Portuguese  in  command  of  five  Spanish  ships,  sailed 
from  Spain  with  the  hope  of  finding  a  route  to  Asia  by  way 
of  the  southwest.  He  discovered  the  strait  since  known 
by  his  name,  south  of  the  mainland  of  South  America, 
sailed  through  it,  and  entered  the  vast  ocean  which  Bal 
boa  had  seen.  He  found  it  free  from  storms,  and  in  con 
sequence  named  it  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  crossed  this  vast 
ocean,  and  accomplished  what  Columbus  had  set  out  to  do, 
reaching  Asia  by  sailing  west.  He  was  killed  by  savages  in 
the  Philippine  Islands,  but  one  of  his  ships  sailed  around 


28 


DISCOVERY   AND   INHABITANTS   OF   AMERICA. 


the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  reached  Spain  in  1522.1  This 
was  the  first  circumnavigation  of  the  globe.  Now  for  the 
first  time  was  it  learned  what  Columbus  had  really  done. 
Instead  of  reaching  the  shores  of  Asia,  he  had  discovered 
a  great  new  continent  which  lay  in  the  vast  seas  between. 
In  consequence,  it  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  NEW  WORLD. 

2.    THE    INDIANS,   THEIR    CHARACTERISTICS    AND 
CUSTOMS. 

The  Red  Men.  —  It  is  common  to  speak  of  the  "  discovery 
of  America,"  but  by  this  we  mean  only  its  discovery  by 
the  civilized  people  of  Europe.  It  had 
been  discovered,  or  at  least  peopled,  by 
men  long  before,  no  one  knows  how 
long,  nor  whence  these  people  came. 
Columbus  named  them  "  Indians," 
thinking  them  to  be  inhabitants  of 
India,  in  Asia.  They  are  also  fre- 
quently  called  "  red  men,"  for  they 
were  of  a  reddish  or  cinnamon  color. 
They  had  coarse  hair,  black  and 
straight,  small  black  eyes,  and  but 
little  beard.  Their  cheek-bones  were 
high  and  their  noses  prominent.  In  these  and  other  re 
spects  they  differed  from  the  people  of  Europe. 

Character  of  the  Red  Men.  —  The  Indians  occupied  the 
whole  of  North  and  South  America.  They  were  not  all 
alike  in  appearance,  and  they  differed  greatly  in  customs 
and  degree  of  development.  The  island  people  first  seen 


INDIAN 


1  The  captain  of  this  vessel  was  rewarded  by  the  King  of  Spain  with 
a  coat  of  arms,  on  which  was  represented  a  globe  with  the  motto, 
"  You  first  sailed  round  me." 


THE   INDIANS,  CHARACTERISTICS  AND   CUSTOMS.        29 

by  Columbus  were  gentle  and  peaceful.  This  was  not  the 
case  with  those  on  the  mainland,  most  of  whom  were 
fierce  and  warlike.  Many  of  them  were  in  the  savage 
state ;  that  is,  they  had  only  a  few  rude  arts  and  little 
organization.  Others  were  in  what  is  known  as  the  barba 
rian  state,  while  still  others,  like  those  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
had  some  degree  of  civilization,  and  possessed  many  arts 
and  industries. 

The  Savage  and  Barbarian  Indians. — The  savage  In 
dians  lived  almost  entirely  by  hunting  and  fishing,  and  had 
no  fixed  places  of  habitation,  but  roamed 
from  place  to  place  with  their  tent-shaped 
wigwams  or  other  simple  dwellings.  They 
had  few  utensils  and  little  or  no  agriculture. 
Those  who  dwelt  in  the  eastern  half  of  this 
country  were  barbarians.  They  had  fixed 
homes,  living  in  villages,  and  cultivating  the 
fields  to  some  extent,  though  they  were  active 
hunters  also.  They  tilled  the  ground  with 

,  .   .  .,  INDIAN  WOMAN. 

hoes,  which  were  made  of  stone,  bone,  or 
other  hard  substance,  attached  to  a  stick.     The  principal 
plants    grown   by   them   were   maize,    or   "  Indian-corn," 
pumpkins,  squashes,  beans,  and  tobacco.1 

Dwellings. — The  dwellings  of  the  Indians  differed 
greatly  in  character.  Some  tribes  dwelt  in  wigwams, 
or  round  huts  with  a  framework  of  upright  poles,  which 
were  bent  inward  and  fastened  together  at  the  top.  These 
were  covered  with  the  skins  of  animals,  bark,  or  woven 


1  The  Iroquois  tribes  of  Central  New  York  had  a  more  developed 
agriculture.  The  French,  who  invaded  their  country  in  1696,  found 
fields  of  maize  which  extended  a  league  from  the  villages.  General 
Sullivan,  in  his  invasion  in  1779,  found  large  apple  and  peach 
orchards,  and  abundant  stores  of  corn,  beans,  and  squashes. 


30 


DISCOVERY   AND   INHABITANTS   OF  AMERICA. 


INDIAN  POTTERY. 


mats.  Their  fires  were  made  in  clay  or  stone  pits  in  the 
floor,  and  the  smoke  escaped  through  a  hole  in  the  roof. 
Various  other  forms  of  dwellings  were  used.  The  Iroquois 
tribes  had  houses  several  hundred  feet  long,  and  divided 
into  many  apartments  or  residences 
by  partitions.  They  were  made  of 
framework  covered  with  bark,  and 
sometimes  held  from  thirty  to  fifty 
families.  Some  of  the  Southern  In 
dians  had  circular  dwellings  with  par 
titions  made  of  mats  and  running 
from  the  outer  wall  to  the  centre. 
Each  apartment  thus  made  was  the  home  of  a  family. 

Furniture  and  Utensils. — The  dwellings  had  little  furni 
ture,  the  Indians  living  mostly  in  the  open  air.  Mats  and 
skins  served  for  bedding  and  the  ground  usually  for  seats 
and  tables.  For  cooking  purposes  some  tribes  used  wooden 
vessels,  hollowed  out  by  burning  and  scraping.  They  filled 
these  vessels  with  water  and  threw 
in  stones  heated  in  their  fires  till 
the  water  boiled.  Then  the  food 
was  dropped  in  to  cook  in  the  boil 
ing  water.  Baskets  made  of  willow, 
very  closely  woven,  were  used  in 
the  same  way.  Some  tribes  had 
vessels  of  earthenware,  others  of 
hollowed  out  soapstone. 

Clothing-. — ;The  winter  clothing 
of  the  red  men  was  mostly  made 
of  deer-skin.  In  summer  they  wore  very  little  clothing. 
On  their  feet  they  wore  moccasins,  or  shoes  made  of  buck 
skin,  which  were  very  soft  and  pliable  and  enabled  them  to 
walk  noiselessly.  Some  tribes  wove  coarse  cloth,  out  of 


INDIAN  WOMAN  WEAVING. 


THE   INDIANS,  CHARACTERISTICS   AND   CUSTOMS.        31 

which  their  clothing  was  made.  They  often  wore  a  head 
dress  of  feathers.  Beads  made  from  sea-shells,  called 
wampum,  were  worn  as  ornaments  and  also  used  as 
money.  It  was  their  custom  when  engaged  in  war  to 
paint  their  faces  in  stripes  and  spots  of  red  and  other 
colors. 

Tools. — Their  tools  were  made  of  stone,  chipped  or 
rubbed  to  the  desired  shape,  or  of  bone,  horn,  wood,  or 
shell.  They  consisted  of  stone  axes,  hoes,  and  other  im 
plements  for  domestic  use,  scrapers  to  prepare  skins  for 
use,  bone  needles,  wooden  paddles  for  their  canoes,  and 
some  other  simple  implements.  The  only  metal  they  pos 
sessed  was  copper,  which  they  obtained  from  mines  in  the 
lake  region  and  hammered  into  shape.  It  was  principally 
used  for  ornamental  purposes.  Pipes  were  articles  in 
common  use.  These  were  usually  made  of  stone,  hollowed 
out  and  pierced  with  a  hole  for  the  smoke  to  pass  through, 
and  were  often  curiously  and  skilfully  carved. 

Weapons. — Their   weapons   were    bows    and    arrows, 
which  were  pointed  with  flint  or  other  hard  substance ; 
tomahawks,     or 
hatchets,    of  •gacsss*' — -•-"»-••••  •* 

flint  With  WOOd- 

en  handles ;  and 

war-clubs  of  hard  and  heavy  wood.  These  native  weapons 
proved  of  little  service  against  the  weapons  of  the  white 
men,  and  were  thrown  aside  as  soon  as  the  Indians  were 
able  to  trade  furs  for  knives  and  hatchets  of  iron,  guns,  and 
ammunition.  It  is  said  that  some  of  them  thought  that 
powder  was  a  sort  of  seed,  and  planted  in  the  ground  the 
first  they  obtained,  hoping  to  raise  a  crop  of  this  useful 
plant. 


32 


DISCOVERY  AND  INHABITANTS   OF  AMERICA. 


Modes  of  Travel. — The  Indians  possessed  no  horses  nor 
beasts  of  burden.  The  horse,  ox,  sheep,  and  pig  were  not 
known  in  this  country  till  brought  here  by  the 
whites.  They  had  the  bison,  or  buffalo,  but 
used  it  only  for  food.  In  winter  they  travelled 
on  snow-shoes, — frames  of  wood  covered  with 
hide,  so  long  and  wide  that  they  would  not 
sink  into  the  snow.  In  summer  they  traversed 
forests  and  plains  on  their  noiseless  moccasins. 
The  canoe  was  much  used  for  summer  travel. 
This  was  a  very  light  boat,  its  strong  frame 
being  covered  with  the  thin  and  flexible  bark 
of  the  birch-tree.  It  was  pointed  at  both  ends 
and  was  forced  through  the  water  by  the  aid 
of  a  paddle.  Unlike  the  rower,  the  canoe-man 
faced  forward. 

Duties  of  Men  and  Women. — The  Indian 
man  did  no  work.  Hunting  and  fighting  were 
his  only  duties,  and  all  labor  in  the  village  was  left  to  the 
women,  who  planted  and  hoed  the  corn,  made  the  deer 
skin  clothing,  and  cooked  the  food.  Fire  was  produced  by 
twirling  the  end  of  a  stick  rapidly  on  a  dry  piece  of  wood. 
The  men  made  their  weapons,  indulged  in  dances  and 
mimic  battles,  and  were  skilled  in  the  arts  of  hunting  and 
war.  It  was  their  custom  to  pull  out  all  their  hair  except 
a  lock  on  the  crown  of  the  head.  This,  called  the  scalp- 
lock,  was  left  in  order  that  an  enemy,  if  able  to  kill  the 
warrior  in  battle,  might  pluck  off  his  scalp  as  a  trophy  of 
victory. 

Methods  of  Warfare. — In  war  the  Indians  were  fierce 
and  cruel.  They  did  not  favor  open  fighting,  but  preferred 
to  practise  stratagem.  It  was  their  habit  to  steal  upon 
their  enemies  through  the  forest,  creeping  or  lying  in  wait, 


INDIAN  QUIVER 
AND  BOW-CASE. 


THE  INDIANS,  CHARACTERISTICS   AND   CUSTOMS.       33 

and  seeking  to  take  them  by  surprise.  They  became  re 
markably  skilful  in  following  a  trail, — that  is,  in  tracing 
the  passage  of  men  or  animals  by  the  faint 
marks  of  their  foot-prints,  by  broken  leaves 
and  twigs,  and  other  marks  only  visible  to 
well-trained  eyes.  They  were  equally  skil 
ful  in  concealing  their  own  trails. 

Ferocity  in  War. — The  Indians  had  no 
mercy  on  their  foes.  They  often  sought  to 
take  prisoners,  but  only  that  they  might  put 
them  to  death  by  torture.  It  was  their  de 
light  to  make  the  captives  suffer  the  utmost  AN  INDIAN  SHIELD. 
pain,  they  being  tortured  as  they  were  slowly 
burned  to  death.  The  prisoner,  on  the  other  hand,  felt 
a  pride  in  bearing  pain  without  flinching,  and  treated  his 
foes  with  contempt  and  derision.  He  sometimes  pro 
voked  them  by  his  insults  to  kill  him  without  further 
torture.  In  some  cases  a  prisoner  escaped  death  by  being 
adopted  into  the  tribe,  by  a  mother  who  had  lost  her  son, 
or  otherwise. 

Indians  of  the  South. — The  Indian  tribes  of  Florida  and 
the  Gulf  region  generally  were  more  advanced  than  those 
farther  north.  They  had  compact,  well-built  villages  and 
paid  much  more  attention  to  agriculture,  and  had  also  a 
superior  system  of  government  and  more  developed  religious 
ideas.  The  products  of  the  field  and  the  hunt  were  public 
property,  and  were  kept  in  a  common  storehouse  to  be  dis 
tributed  as  needed.  This  was  the  system  now  known  as 
Communism. 

Number  of  Indians. — The  Indians  were  not  many  in 
number.  There  may  have  been  not  more  than  two  hun 
dred  thousand  of  them  in  all  the  country  east  of  the  Mis 
sissippi.  People  who  live  by  hunting  cannot  be  numerous, 

3 


34 


DISCOVERY   AND   INHABITANTS   OF   AMERICA. 


-x.^\s^s5-\i-.._ 


INDIANS  BUILDING  A  CANOE. 


since  a  wide  space  of  hunting-ground  is  needed  for  the 
support  of  each  family.     Some  writers  believe  that  there 

are  as  many  Indians 
in  the  United  States 
to-day  as  there  were 
four  hundred  years 
ago,  though  they  oc- 

^^^ijTgjg^lMBf; ' 
^3pT5s 


cupy   a  very   much 
smaller  space. 

Religious  Beliefs. 
-The  Indians  seem 
to  have  believed  in 

a  Great  Spirit,  all-wise,  good,  and  powerful.  Some  writers, 
however,  think  that  they  obtained  this  idea  of  a  Supreme 
God  from  the  white  men.  They  believed  also  in  inferior 
spirits,  good  and  bad,  and  in  happy  hunting-grounds  to 
which  the  spirits  of  the  brave  would  pass.  The  only  priest 
was  the  medicine-man,  who  pretended  to  have  power  over 
evil  spirits  by  aid  of  sorcery  and  magic.  They  had  no 
idol  worship.  Some  of  the  Southern  tribes  worshipped 
the  sun,  and  had  temples  and  religious  ceremonies.  Be 
sides  the  medicine-man  or  conjurer,  these  had  a  high -priest 
and  a  series  of  inferior  priests  of  the  sun.  They  kept  up 
a  sacred  fire  in  the  temple,  which  was  not  allowed  to  go 
out. 

Groups  or  Families  of  Indians. — There  were  several 
families  or  unlike  groups  of  Indians,  differing  in  language 
and  in  degree  of  civilization.  The  Algonquin  family  of  the 
North  extended  from  the  Atlantic  to  and  beyond  the  Missis 
sippi.  West  of  it  lay  the  Dakota  and  other  families.  The 
Iroquois  family  dwelt  principally  in  New  York.  The  Mas- 
koki  or  Mobilian  family  lay  south  of  Tennessee,  and  ex 
tended  from  the  Mississippi  River  into  Florida. 


THE   INDIANS,  CHARACTERISTICS  AND   CUSTOMS.        35 

Organization. — Each  of  these  families  was  divided  into 
tribes,  often  hostile  to  each  other.  Thus,  the  Iroquois  had 
five  tribes  in  central  New  York  and  some  other  tribes  else 
where.  At  a  later  date  they  had  six  tribes  in  New  York, 
and  became  known  as  the  Six  Tribes.  Each  tribe  had  its 
fixed  name,  such  as  Seneca,  Mohawk,  etc.  The  tribes 
were  divided  up  into  smaller  bodies  or  clans,  each  of  wfiich 
was  believed  to  be  descended  from  a  single  ancestor. 
Among  the  Iroquois  all  the  members  of  a  clan  lived  in  one 
of  the  great  houses  above  described  or  in  several  of  these 
grouped  together.  The  houses  and  food  belonged  to  the 
clan,  weapons  and  ornaments  being  the  only  private  prop 
erty.  Each  clan  had  its  own  religious  ceremonies,  and  was 
known  by  a  special  name,  such  as  Bear,  Wolf,  Turtle,  etc. 
The  animal  after  which  the  clan  was  named  was  held  sa 
cred,  and  carved  images  of  it,  called  totems,  formed  the 
clan  emblem.  The  Indians  believed  that  their  earliest  an 
cestor  was  the  spirit  of  this  animal,  which  watched  over 
and  protected  them. 

Government. — A  tribe  might  be  made  up  of  from  three 
or  four  to  twenty  or  more  clans,  all  speaking  the  same  lan 
guage  and  without  any  distinction  of  rank.  Each  clan  was 
governed  by  a  sachem  or  civil  magistrate.  Each  might  also 
have  a  number  of  war  chiefs,  who  had  no  power  but  that 
of  leading  in  war.  These  officers  were  elected,  and  all 
could  vote,  women  as  well  as  men.  A  council  of  the  sa 
chems  governed  the  tribe  and  decided  all  important  ques 
tions.  The  Iroquois  tribes  were  united  into  a  confederacy, 
in  which  a  council  of  the  principal  chiefs  and  sachems 
decided  questions  of  war,  and  which  enabled  them  to  act 
together  against  their  enemies. 

Wampum  Re  cords. — The  Indians  could  not  write,  though 
they  could  make  pictures  that  served  as  a  kind  of  writing. 


36  DISCOVERY   AND   INHABITANTS   OF  AMERICA. 

Belts  of  wampum  or  shell  beads  were  also  used  as  records. 
The  record  of  the  treaty  with  William  Penn  was  kept  by 
such  a  belt,  which  had  on  it  a  picture  of  an  Indian  and  a 
white  man  clasping  hands.1  The  arrangement  and  color 


PENN  TEEATY  WAMPUM  BELT. 

of  the  beads  had  their  meaning,  and  the  knowledge  of  what 
was  done  at  any  council  was  thus  kept. 

Language. — Each  family  of  Indians  had  its  own  language 
and  each  tribe  its  own  dialect.  Indian  speech  differs  from 
that  of  the  natives  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  is  looked  upon 
as  a  separate  family  of  language.  Its  special  peculiarity  is 
that  a  single  word  is  often  equal  to  a  whole  sentence  in 
English.  An  Indian  can  say  in  one  long  word  what  we 
may  need  ten  or  twenty  short  words  to  express. 

The  Indians  of  To-day. — The  wars  of  the  Indians  are 
nearly  or  quite  at  an  end.  They  have  been  forced  to  keep 
peace,  and  most  of  them  have  been  settled  on  tracts  of  land 
called  "  reservations,"  where  they  are  looked  after  and  to 
some  extent  fed  by  the  whites.  Others,  in  the  Indian  Ter 
ritory,  have  civilized  governments  of  their  own.  They  are 
gradually  taking  up  the  habits  and  industries  of  civilization, 
and  are  increasing  in  numbers. 

The  Mound-Builders. — Throughout  the  valley  of  the 
Ohio  and  part  of  that  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  the  Gulf 


1  This  interesting  record,  or  example  of  Indian  picture-writing,  is 
still  in  existence,  being  among  the  treasures  gathered  by  the  Historical 
Society  of  Pennsylvania,  in  whose  rooms  it  may  be  seen. 


THE  INDIANS,  CHARACTERISTICS   AND   CUSTOMS.        37 


^s^ 

INDIAN  STONE  IMPLEMENTS. 


States,  have  been  found  traces  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  of 
this  country.     Great  numbers  of  mounds  or  artificial  hills 
exist  in  this  region.     Some 
of  them  are  only  a  few  feet 
wide   and   high,  others  are 
very  large.     One  of  them,  in 
Illinois,  opposite  St.  Louis,  is 
ninety  feet  high  and  covers 
eight  acres  of  ground.   There 

are  many  thousands  of  mounds  in  Ohio  alone,  most  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  used  for  burial,  while  others  were 
probably  fortifications  and  village  enclosures.  One  en 
closure  at  Newark,  Ohio,  has  over  two  miles  of  earth  ridge 
or  embankment,  some  of  it  twenty  feet  high.  Some  of 
these  earth  mounds  are  curious  and  interesting,  as  they 
represent  men  or  animals.  One  in  Ohio  represents  a  ser 
pent  one  thousand  feet  long.  Another  is  much  like  the 
elephant  in  form.  These  great  images  may  have  indicated 
the  totems  of  tribes,  while  the  very  high  mounds  may  have 
been  crowned  with  temples. 

Contents  of  the  Mounds. — More  than  two  thousand  of 
the  small  mounds  have  been  opened  and  very  many  relics 

taken  from  them.  These  in 
clude  tools  and  weapons  of 
stone,  water- jugs,  kettles, 
carved  stone  pipes,  and  many 
other  objects.  Pieces  of  cop 
per  are  found,  and  this  metal 
seems  to  have  been  mined 
near  Lake  Superior.  It  was 
not  melted,  but  was  shaped  by  hammering. 

Who  were  the  Mound-Builders  ? — It  was  long  supposed 
that  the  Mound-Builders  were  a  separate  race,  who  had 


INDIAN  IMPLEMENTS  OF  SHELL. 


38  DISCOVERY   AND   INHABITANTS  OF  AMERICA. 

been  driven  out  or  destroyed  by  more  barbarous  tribes.  It 
is  now  believed  that  they  were  the  ancestors  of  the  present 
Indians.  The  Indians  of  the  South,  when  first  known,  had 
earth  mounds  still  in  use,  on  the  larger  of  which  temples 
and  council-houses  were  built.  These  Indians  had  a  higher 
organization  than  those  of  the  North,  and  were  governed 
by  a  Mico,  or  head  chief,  who  had  almost  despotic  power. 
They  had  a  head  war  chief,  a  high-priest,  and  other  officials. 
The  Natchez  tribe,  on  the  Mississippi,  were  still  more  ad 
vanced.  These  tribes  were  probably  the  descendants  of 
the  Mound-Builders,  who  may  have  been  forced  southward 
by  more  savage  invaders  from  the  north  or  west. 

The  Pueblo  Indians. — The  Indians  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
and  Pacific  region  differed  greatly  in  character  from  those 
of  the  East.  Some  of  them,  like  the  Digger  Indians  of  Cali 
fornia,  were  in  a  state  of  great  degradation.  Others,  known 
as  Flatheads,  had  the  habit  of  flattening  their  skulls  while 
young.  The  Apaches  and  some  other  tribes  were  very  fierce 
and  cruel.  The  most  interesting  of  them  all  were  the  Pueblo 
Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  These  built  great 
houses  of  sun-dried  bricks  or  flat  stones,  which  are  four  or 
five  stories  high  and  large  enough  to  hold  a  whole  tribe. 
They  are  still  inhabited,  and  the  largest  of  them  can  accom 
modate  three  thousand  persons.  These  great  dwellings  are 
called  "  pueblos."  They  have  no  doors  or  windows,  but 
are  entered  from  holes  in  the  roof  reached  by  ladders.  Each 
upper  story  is  smaller  than  those  below,  and  they  rise  one 
above  another  like  great  steps.  Some  of  these  buildings 
stand  on  the  tops  of  high  and  steep  hills  very  difficult  to 
climb,  on  which  they  have  been  built  as  a  protection  against 
enemies. 

Pueblo  Agriculture. — The  Pueblo  Indians  lived  by  agri 
culture,  and  raised  large  crops  of  Indian-corn  and  other 


THE  INDIANS,  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  CUSTOMS.       39 

plants.  As  their  country  had  little  rain  they  had  learned  to 
irrigate  it,  making  ditches  and  sluices  by  which  the  water 
of  the  rivers  was  spread  over  the  land.  They  had  no  do 
mestic  animals,  but  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  to-day — the  Mo- 


A  PUEBLO  HABITATION. 

quis  (mo'kes)  of  Arizona  and  the  Zufiis  (zoon'yes)  of  New 
Mexico — keep  sheep  and  other  animals,  which  were  intro 
duced  by  the  whites.  The  horse  has  also  long  been  used 
by  the  Indians  of  the  West,  many  of  whom  are  very  expert 
riders. 

The  Cliff-Dwellers. — In  Southern  Colorado  and  other 
parts  of  the  Southwest  the  country  is  cut  into  deep  ravines 
by  river  action.  The  bottoms  of  many  of  these  ravines  are 
now  dry  and  little  or  no  rain  falls  in  them,  so  that  they  are 
unfit  for  human  habitation.  They  must  formerly  have  been 
in  a  different  state,  for  they  seem  to  have  been  inhabited. 
On  the  steep  sides  of  the  ravines,  often  several  hundred  feet 


40  DISCOVERY  AND   INHABITANTS  OF  AMERICA. 

high,  deep  crevices  occur,  and  in  these  people  formerly 
lived.  They  built  stone  dwellings  in  these  narrow  and 
lofty  situations,  where  they  could  be  reached  only  by  a 
difficult  climb  up  the  cliffs.  Some  of  them  are  now  quite 
inaccessible.  They  were  probably  used  as  places  of  refuge 
from  enemies,  and  food  was  grown  in  the  ravines  below. 
No  food  plants  can  now  be  cultivated  in  these  barren  ravines, 
and  the  Cliff-Dwellers  have  long  since  disappeared. 


TOPICAL   ANALYSIS. 


1.  Conditions  in  Europe  about  the  year  1492. 


ERA  OF 
DISCOVERY. 


2.  Early  discovery  . 


r 

•!  h 


The   Northmen  and    their    settle 
ments. 

b.  The  discovery  of  the  continent. 

c.  Other  voyages  to  Vinland. 

d.  Accounts  of  first  voyage. 


3.  Changed  conditions  in  Europe. 


4.  Eastward  movements 


a.  Trade  between  Europe  and  Asia. 
6.  Adventures  of  Marco  Polo, 
c.  Interference  of  the  Turks. 


5.  Seeking  new  routes  for  commerce. 


Portuguese  enterprise. 


7.  Christopher  Columbus . 


8.  Voyage  of  Columbus 


a.  Birth  and  early  history. 

b.  His  ideas  of  the  earth. 

c.  His  appeals  for  aid. 

d.  Assistance  received. 

f  a.  New  difficulties. 

b.  Hopeful  signs. 

c.  Discovery  of  land. 

d.  Continuation  of  voyage. 

e.  Belief  of  Columbus  as  to  new  land. 
/.  Reception  on  his  return  to  Spain. 

g.  Further  honors. 


9.  How  America  was  named. 


10.  The  Cabots    .   .   . 


a.  The  discovery  of  North  America. 
6.  Voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot, 
c.  Honors  to  the  Cabots. 


11.  Attempt  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  to  divide  the  new  country. 

12.  Further  discoveries  . 


f  a.  By  Balboa. 
\  b.  By  Magellan. 


TOPICAL  ANALYSIS. 


THE  INDIANS. . 


1.  The  red  men    . 


2.  Condition  of   the  In 
dians  . 


3.  Indian  warfare   .... 

4.  Indians  of  the  South. 

5.  Numbers  of  the  Indians. 

6.  Religious  beliefs. 

7.  Organization  of  the  In 

dians  .  . 


8.  The  Mound-Builders 


9.  The  Pueblo  Indians . 
10.  The  Cliff-Dwellers. 


a.  Their  personal  appearance. 

6.  Their  character. 

c.  Savage  and  barbarous  tribes. 

a.  Dwellings. 

b.  Furniture  and  utensils. 

c.  Clothing. 

d.  Tools  and  weapons. 

e.  Modes  of  travel. 

/.  Duties  of  men  and  women. 

a.  Strategy  of  the  Indians. 
6.  Cruelty  in  war. 


a.  Family  groups,  tribes,  and  clans. 
6.  Government. 

c.  Wampum  records. 

d.  Language. 

e.  Modern  Indians. 

a.  Character  of  the  mounds. 

b.  Contents  of  the  mounds. 

c.  Who  were  the  Mound-Builders? 

a.  The  Pueblo  habitations! 

b.  Pueblo  agriculture. 


NOTE.— These  outlines  are  intended  simply  as  examples,  and  it  is  suggested  thai 
pupils  be  required  to  make  similar  analyses  of  succeeding  sections.  Such  exercise 
will  be  of  great  value  if  properly  conducted. 


PART    II. 
THE  ERA  OF  EXPLORATION* 


i.  THE   SPANISH    EXPLORERS. 

The  Enterprise  of  Spain  and  Portugal. — To-day  Spain 
and  Portugal  are  two  of  the  most  unenterprising  nations  of 
Europe..  Four  centuries  ago  they  were  the  two  most  enter 
prising.  While  England  and  France  showed  very  little  of 
the  spirit  of  adventure,  Portugal  was  busy  in  the  effort  to 
circumnavigate  Africa,  and  afterward  in  developing  its  rich 
Eastern  trade,  and  Spain  was  equally  active  in  taking  pos 
session  of  the  new-discovered  continent  of  America. 

Spanish  Exploration  in  the  North. — But  the  Spanish 
adventurers  were  principally  attracted  to  the  gold-yielding 
lands  of  the  south,  and  made  few  and  tardy  settlements  in 
the  territory  of  the  present  United  States.  There  was 
little  there  to  attract  the  cupidity  of  treasure-seekers,  while 
the  hostility  of  the  natives  brought  nearly  every  expedition 
to  a  disastrous  end.  It  is  our  purpose  to  tell  the  story, 
somewhat  briefly,  of  these  various  Spanish  efforts,  as  pre 
liminary  to  the  beginning  of  actual  United  States  history. 

The  Fountain  of  Youth. — The  first  of  these  Spanish 
ventures  was  made  in  1513.  There  was  a  story  extant 
that  somewhere  in  Eastern  Asia  was  a  magical  fountain, 
whose  waters  would  give  perpetual  youth  to  whoever 
might  drink  of  them.  The  Spaniards  in  Cuba  still  believed 
that  they  had  reached  Asia,  and  some  statements  of  the 

41 


42  THE  ERA   OF   EXPLORATION. 

Indians  gave  them  the  idea  that  this  fountain  of  youth  lay 
not  far  to  the  north. 

A  Spaniard  of  Porto  Rico  named  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon 
(hwdn  pon'thd  da  Id-tin' ,  often  called  pdns  d&  le'dn),  eager 
to  regain  his  lost  youth,  set  sail  to  the  north  in  1513,  and 
on  Easter  Sunday  saw  land,  which  he  named  "  Tierra  de 
Pascua  Florida,"  equivalent  to  "Land  of  Flowery  Easter." 
Perhaps  the  abundant  flowers  he  saw  had  something  to 
do  with  the  name  of  Florida,  which  this  country  has  ever 
since  borne.  De  Leon  was  the  first  to  land  on  the  coast 
of  the  present  United  States,  but  the  fountain  he  sought 
could  not  be  found,  and  he  returned  an  old  man  still.  He 
came  again  in  1521  and  tried  to  make  a  settlement  in 
Florida.  But  he  had  not  the  Cuban  Indians  to  deal  with, 
and  was  attacked  and  mortally  wounded.  Death,  instead 
of  youth,  was  the  meed  of  the  old  knight. 

De  Ayllon's  Enterprise. — Other  navigators  sailed  still 
farther  north,  some  of  them  with  the  hope  of  finding  a 
passage  through  the  continent  to  Asia,  that  discovered  by 
Magellan  being  too  far  south.  In  1520,  Vasquez  de  Ayllon 
(vas'Mth  da  ll-ydn'}  sent  an  expedition  to  the  Carolina  coast, 
and  in  1526  he  attempted  to  found  a  settlement,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  on  the  James  River,  near  the  later 
site  of  Jamestown.  Sickness  and  Indian  hostility  brought 
this  enterprise  to  an  end. 

Expedition  of  De  Narvaez. — Mobile  Bay  had  been  en 
tered  by  Spanish  explorers,  and  the  Indians  thore  found  to 
wear  ornaments  of  gold.  This  fact  excited  the  cupidity  of 
the  Spaniards,  who  thought  it  possible  that  a  kingdom  rich 
as  that  of  Mexico  might  be  found  in  this  region.  In  1528, 
Panfilo  de  Narvaez  (pdn'fl-lo  da  ndr-vd'tth)  sailed  there 
with  four  ships  and  four  hundred  men.  These  adventurers, 
instead  of  gold,  found  only  hunger,  hardship,  and  death. 


THE   SPANISH   EXPLORERS.  43 

Hostile  Indians  assailed  them,  wide  swamps  and  deep 
rivers  lay  in  their  path,  food  was  scarce,  and  they  were  at 
length  glad  to  embark  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  boats  of 
their  own  construction.  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  an  officer  of  the 
expedition,  discovered  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  Soon  after  they  were  wrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Texas,  some  of  the  men  being  drowned,  and  others  cap 
tured  by  the  Indians.  Four  of  these  captives — Cabeza,  two 
sailors,  and  a  negro — had  remarkable  adventures.  They 
were  carried  about  by  the  Indians,  made  their  way  from 
tribe  to  tribe,  and  finally  escaped  westwardly,  where  they 
travelled  over  two  thousand  miles  of  unknown  land.  Fi 
nally,  eight  years  after  their  capture,  they  reached  the 
Gulf  of  California,  where  they  were  rescued  by  Spaniards 
from  Mexico.  They  were  the  only  survivors  of  the  expe 
dition. 

De  Soto's  Expedition. — A  second  effort  to  discover  an 
Indian  empire  north  of  the  Gulf  was  made  by  Fernando 
de  Soto,  governor  of  Cuba,  in  1539.  Starting  with  nine 
ships,  nearly  six  hundred  men,  and  over  two  hundred 
horses,  he  landed  at  Tampa  Bay,  in  Florida,  and  advanced 
thence  very  slowly,  being  constantly  opposed  by  hostile 
Indians.  For  two  years  the  adventurers  made  their  way 
against  unceasing  difficulties,  traversing  more  than  fifteen 
hundred  miles  without  finding  riches  or  civilized  peoples. 
In  the  spring  of  1541  they  reached  the  banks  of  the  Missis 
sippi,  being  the  first  white  men  to  gaze  on  that  mighty 
stream.1 

1  De  Soto  had  been  with  Pizarro  in  Peru,  and  hoped  to  conquer  as 
rich  a  realm  in  Florida.  He  had  all  the  daring  and  cruelty  of  the 
Spanish  conquerors,  and  took  with  him  blood-hounds  to  hunt  the  In 
dians  and  chains  to  fetter  them.  A  drove  of  hogs  was  also  taken,  to 
insure  a  supply  of  fresh  meat.  The  Indians  taken  were  treated  as 


44  THE  ERA   OF   EXPLORATION. 

Crossing  the  broad  flood,  they  journeyed  for  months  up 
its  western  side,  finding  hardship  and  hunger,  but  no 
treasures.  In  May,  1542,  they  reached  the  Mississippi  again 
at  the  mouth  of  Red  River.  Here  De  Soto  died.  He  was 
buried  at  night  in  the  bed  of  the  great  stream  he  had  dis 
covered,  and  the  remnant  of  his  men,  building  boats,  made 
their  way  down  the  river  and  across  the  Gulf  to  the  Spanish 
settlements  in  Mexico.  Nearly  half  of  them  had  died.  The 
remainder  were  a  miserable,  half-naked,  and  half-starved 
band  of  disappointed  adventurers. 

Explorations  on  the  Pacific. — The  Mexicans  told  their 
Spanish  conquerors  that  most  of  their  gold  came  from  a 
land  lying  northwest  of  their  country.  Cortez,  the  con 
queror  of  Mexico,  sent  several  expeditions  in  that  direction. 
California,  as  they  named  the  country,  was  explored,  but  no 
gold  found,  its  golden  treasures  being  destined  to  lie  un- 
toucjied  until  a  much  later  day.  In  1542,  Cabrillo  (M- 
brel'yo)  made  a  voyage  along  the  coast  of  California.  He 
died  on  the  way,  but  his  pilot  explored  the  coast  for  a 
considerable  distance  northward. 

Coronado's  Expedition. — Cabeza  de  Vaca,  on  reaching 
Mexico  after  his  escape  from  the  Indians,  had  much  to  tell 
about  what  he  had  seen  and  heard  of  in  his  long  journey. 
Stories  had  been  told  the  wanderers  about  the  pueblo  set 
tlements  to  the  north,  magnified  in  imagination  to  the 
"  seven  cities  of  Cibola."  A  monk  was  sent  to  spy  out  the 
land,  and  came  back  reporting  opulent  cities,  rich  in  gold 
and  silver.  Francisco  de  Coronado  started  north  in  1540  to 
explore  this  country,  with  a  large  force  of  Spaniards  and 


slaves  or  beasts  of  burden,  and  shot  or  maimed  if  they  refused  to  aid 
their  foes.  Their  villages  were  burned,  their  granaries  plundered. 
As  a  result  they  were  inveterately  hostile. 


THE   FRENCH   EXPLORERS.  45 

Indians.  He  visited  the  Moqui  and  Zuni  pueblos,  discov 
ered  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  River,  but  found 
none  of  the  wealth  reported.  He  continued  his  journey 
perhaps  as  far  north  as  the  Platte  River,  in  Nebraska.  He 
returned  to  Mexico  in  1542,  disgusted,  if  not  insane  with 
disappointment,  at  the  failure  of  his  high  hopes  of  treasure 
and  conquest. 

The  Spanish  Possessions. — The  Spaniards  had  thus  ex 
plored  much  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States.  They  laid 
claim  to  the  whole  of  it.  Rut  their  only  actual  possession  in 
the  East  was  the  small  settlement  of  St.  Augustine,  which  they 
founded  in  Florida  in  1565.  In  the  West  they  had  settle 
ments  in  California  and  New  Mexico.  The  latter  territory 
wras  explored  in  1582  by  Espejo  ($s-pa'ho),  who  founded 
Santa  Fe,  the  second  oldest  town  in  the  United  States. 

2.  THE  FRENCH  EXPLORERS. 

The  Newfoundland  Fisheries. — The  first  display  of 
French  enterprise  directed  toward  the  new  world  was  by 
the  fishermen,  not  by  the  government,  of  France.  The  Ca- 
bots  had  reported  immense  shoals  of  codfish  on  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland.  In  a  few  years  afterward  the  hardy 
fishermen  of  Rrittany  and  Normandy,  attracted  by  the 
promise  of  a  rich  harvest,  crossed  the  ocean  to  these  new 
fishing-grounds.  Some  of  them  sailed  farther  in  and  dis 
covered  an  island  which  they  named  Cape  Rreton,  and  as 
early  as  1506  John  Denys  entered  and  explored  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence. 

Early  French  Explorers. — The  King  of  France  knew 
little  of  what  his  fishermen  were  doing.  Francis  I.,  who 
became  king  in  1515,  mocked  at  the  claims  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  to  possess  all  new  lands  east  or  west.  "Show 


46  THE  ERA  OF   EXPLORATION. 

me,"  he  said,  satirically,  "  that  clause  in  the  will  of  Father 
Adam  which  divides  the  earth  between  the  Spanish  and  the 
Portuguese  and  excludes  the  French." l  Verrazano  (vdr- 
ra-tsafno),  a  Florentine  sailor  in  the  French  service,  was 
sent  out  by  Francis  in  1524,  and  traced  the  coast  north 
ward  from  Cape  Fear,  North  Carolina,  to  some  point  in 
New  England.  He  probably  entered  the  Hudson  River 
and  the  harbor  of  Newport.  He,  like  others,  was  seeking 
a  passage  to  India,  but  concluded  that  none  such  existed. 

Cartier's  Voyages. — Ten  years  passed  before  another 
effort  was  made.  Then,  in  1534,  Jacques  Cartier  (zhdk  cdr- 
tya')  sailed  to  America  and  entered  and  named  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence.  He  landed  and  took  possession  of  the 
country  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  France.  The  next 
year  he  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  River  as  far  as  an 
Indian  village  named  Hochelaga.  This  he  named  Montreal 
(Royal  Mountain)  from  the  lofty  hill  behind  it.  He  called 
the  whole  country  New  France.2 

The  Huguenots  in  Florida. — The  religious  wars  of 
France  gave  rise  to  the  next  attempt  to  found  a  colony. 
In  1562,  Coligny  (co-len-yer),  the  great  Protestant  leader, 
sent  out  a  body  of  Huguenot  (French  Protestant)  colonists 
under  Jean  Ribault  (zhdn  re-bo'},  who  sailed  to  Florida, 
entered  the  St.  John's  River,  and  then  went  north  to  a 
harbor  which  he  named  Port  Royal.  This  effort  failed. 
The  colonists,  weary  of  the  wilderness,  and  pining  for 

1  It  is  said  that  Baron  de  Lery,  a  French  nobleman,  tried  to  plant  a 
colony  on  Sable  Island  in  1518.     But  hunger  assailed  him  and  his 
colonists,  and  they  were  glad  to  escape  starvation  by  flight. 

2  Cartier  returned  in  1541  as  an  agent  of  the  Lord  of  Roberval,  who 
made  an  attempt  to  found  a  colony  in  Canada.     This  effort  ended  in 
failure  in  1543.     Religious  wars  in  France  hindered  any  further  effort 
by  the  French  for  a  half-century. 


THE  FRENCH   EXPLORERS. 


47 


France,  built  a  rude  vessel  and  sailed  for  home.  They 
were  rescued  from  probable  death  by  an  English  ship. 

In  1564  a  second  expedition,  under  Laudonniere  (lo- 
d&n-yair1),  landed  on  the  St.  John's  River,  and  built  a 
fort  which  they  called  Fort  Carolina.1  Ribault  afterward 
brought  out  reinforcements. 

The  Spanish  Massacre. — This  region  was  claimed  by 
Spain,  and  as  soon  as  news  of  the  French  settlement 


PORT  SAN  MARCO,  ST.  AUGUSTINE. 

reached  that  country  an  expedition  was  sent  out,  under 
Pedro  Menendez,  a  naval  officer,  with  orders  to  drive  the 
intruders  off  the  land.  Menendez  landed  in  Florida  in 

1  Laudonniere 's  colonists  suffered  greatly.  Food  grew  so  scarce 
that  they  were  obliged  to  eat  sorrel,  roots,  pounded  fish-bones,  and 
roasted  snakes.  They  traded  their  clothes  with  the  Indians  for  fish, 
and  found  their  sufferings  treated  with  mockery  by  the  savages. 


48  THE  ERA  OF  EXPLORATION. 

1565,  built  a  fort  which  he  named  St.  Augustine,  and  then 
marched  overland  to  the  French  colony,  which  he  over 
came  by  surprise  and  treachery.  Obtaining  possession  of 
the  fort,  he  murdered  every  soul  in  it, — men,  women,  and 
children.  A  few  had  escaped  to  the  woods,  and  these, 
after  strange  adventures,  got  back  to  France. 
.  Ribault  had  meanwhile  set  sail  with  a  force  to  attack  the 
Spanish,  but  his  fleet  was  wrecked  in  a  tempest,  and  the 
shipwrecked  colonists  were  found  by  Menendez  on  his 
return.  Two  hundred  escaped,  but  the  remainder,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  in  number,  surrendered,  and  were 
marched  to  St.  Augustine,  with  their  hands  tied  behind 
them.  Here  they  were  ruthlessly  massacred.  Those  who 
had  escaped  were  afterward  captured  and  made  slaves  for 
life. 

The  Massacre  Revenged. — No  notice  was  taken  of  this 
deed  of  blood  by  the  government  of  France.  But  a  private 
gentleman,  named  Dominique  de  Gourgues  (do-rril-nekf  du 
goorg'\  determined  to  revenge  his  murdered  countrymen, 
even  if  they  did  differ  with  him  in  religion.  He  fitted  out 
a  secret  expedition,  sailed  to  Florida,  and  surprised  the 
Spanish  garrison  at  Fort  Carolina,  putting  every  soul  to 
death.  Being  too  weak  to  attack  St.  Augustine,  he  returned 
in  triumph  to  France.1 

First  Settlements  in  Canada. — Not  until  after  1600  did 
the  French  succeed  in  planting  a  permanent  colony.  Their 
religious  wars  had  ended  in  1598,  and  they  then  first  be 
came  free  for  enterprise.  The  fisheries  not  only  attracted 


1  Menendez  had  hanged  his  captives  at  Fort  Carolina,  placing  over 
their  heads  the  inscription,  "  I  do  this  not  as  to  Frenchmen,  but  as 
to  Lutherans."  De  Gourgues  retorted  in  kind,  hanging  his  prisoners 
where  the  French  had  been  hung,  and  placing  over  them  the  inscrip 
tion,  "  I  do  this  not  as  to  Spaniards,  but  as  to  assassins." 


THE  FRENCH   EXPLORERS. 


49 


them,  but  the  fur-trade  also  had  now  begun,  and  hopes  of 
profit  in  this  direction  were  large.  Fish  and  furs  alike 
drew  them  to  the  north,  and  all  their  later  attempts  at  set 
tlement  were  made  in  Canada.1 

In  1603,  Henry  IV.  gave  to  a  Huguenot  nobleman  named 
De  Monts  (mong)  the  right  to  plant  a  colony  in  Acadia,  a 


EARLY  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS  IN  CANADA. 


district  extending  from 
the  fortieth  to  the  forty- 
sixth  parallel  of  latitude 
(from  the  site  of  Phila 
delphia  to  that  of  Mon 
treal).  This  name  was  afterward  restricted  to  the  region 
which  was  finally  named  by  the  English  New  Brunswick 
and  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  same  year  a  French  adventurer 
named  Samuel  de  Champlain  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  as 
far  as  Montreal.  In  1604  a  settlement  called  Port  Royal 


1  In  1598  the  Marquis  de  la  Roque  established  a  colony  on  Sable 
Island,  his  colonists  being  taken  from  the  prisons  of  France.  It  was 
abandoned  after  a  few  years,  the  prisoners  being  pardoned  and  per 
mitted  to  return. 


50  THE  ERA  OF  EXPLORATION. 

was  made  in  Acadia  by  Poutrincourt  (poo-tr&ng-coor'),  a 
companion  of  De  Monts.  It  was  the  first  permanent 
French  settlement  in  America,  and  preceded  by  three 
years  the  first  English  settlement.  It  was  afterward 
named  Annapolis  in  honor  of  the  English  Queen  Anne. 

Champlain's  Career. — Champlain  returned  in  1608  and 
built  a  fort  at  Quebec,  as  a  fur-trading  post.  This  place 
became  the  centre  of  wide-spread  French  explorations,  in 
the  interests  of  trade,  missionary  work,  and  discovery. 


THE  HEIGHTS  OF  QUEBEC. 

Champlain  discovered  the  beautiful  lake  which  bears  his 
name,  and  pushed  his  explorations  westward  as  far  as  Lake 
Huron.  He  found  himself  in  a  centre  of  Indian  war,  and 
was  induced  by  the  Hurons  to  take  their  part  in  their  wars 
with  the  Iroquois, — the  powerful  Indian  confederacy  of 
New  York. 

The  first  Indian  battle  in  which  the  whites  took  part  was 
fought  in  1609,  at  a  point  near  the  site  of  Fort  Ticonderoga, 
to  which  the  Hurons,  with  their  French  allies,  had  as 
cended  in  canoes  up  Lake  Champlain.  The  muskets  of 
the  whites,  new  and  terrible  weapons  to  the  Indians,  won 
Champlain  and  his  followers  an  easy  victory.  But  it  was 


THE  FRENCH   EXPLORERS.  51 

destined  to  be  a  costly  one.  It  made  the  Iroquois  bitter 
enemies  of  the  French,  and  they  afterward  revenged  their 
defeat  in  blood.  They  were  always  ready  in  after-years  to 
join  the  English  against  the  French,  and  did  much  to  save 
New  York  from  French  occupancy.  It  was  due  to  their 
hostility  that  the  French  made  no  settlements  south  of  the 
lakes. 

Missionary  Explorations. — The  later  explorations  of  the 
French  were  largely  accomplished  by  two  unlike  classes 
of  men,  the  fur-traders  and  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  The 
former  penetrated  deeply  into  the  forests,  lived  on  terms  of 
intimacy  with  the  Indians,  and  were  strikingly  active  and 
daring  in  their  excursions.  The  missionaries  were  equally 
fearless  in  their  efforts  to  convert  the  Indians  to  the  Chris 
tian  faith.  They  suffered  severely  at  the  hands  of  the  sav 
ages,  and  many  of  them  were  put  to  death  with  torture,  but 
their  zeal  and  energy  were  not  to  be  overcome,  and  they 
forced  their  way  deep  into  the  continent. 

In  1673,  Father  Marquette,  hearing  of  a  great  river 
called  by  the  Indians  the  "Father  of  Waters,"  floated 
down  the  Wisconsin  in  a  birch-bark  canoe  to  the  Missis 
sippi,  which  he  descended  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas. 
He  went  as  a  companion  to  Joliet,  a  famous  explorer.  Fear 
of  the  Indians  and  of  capture  by  the  Spaniards  prevented 
their  going  farther  south.  In  1680  another  Jesuit  mission 
ary,  Father  Hennepin,  explored  the  upper  Mississippi  as 
far  as  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. 

La  Salle's  Discoveries. — But  the  greatest  of  these  ex 
plorers  was  Robert  de  la  Salle,  who  had  been  educated  as  a 
Jesuit,  but  had  established  a  trading-post  at  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Ontario.  There  was  never  a  more  indefatigable  ex 
plorer.  About -1669  he  made  an  expedition  in  which  he 
discovered  the  Ohio  and  Illinois  Rivers.  The  first  vessel 


52 


THE   ERA   OF   EXPLORATION. 


ever  seen  on  the  Great  Lakes  was  launched  by  him  in  1679. 
In  this,  which  he  called  the  Griffin,  he  traversed  Lakes  Erie, 
Huron,  and  Michigan.  Sending  the  vessel  back  for  supplies, 
he  built  a  fort  on  the  Illinois  River.  The  vessel  was  lost, 
and  in  1680  he  made  his  way  through  a  thousand  miles  of 
wilderness  to  Montreal  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  sup 
plies,  with  which  he  returned  to  the  Illinois. 

Louisiana. — La  Salle's  life  during  the  next  two  years  was 
full  of  misfortune  and  adventure,  but  in  1682  he  .launched 
his  canoes  on  the  Mississippi,  and  floated  down  that  great 
stream  to  its  mouth.  Here,  on  the  9th  of  April  of  that  year, 
he  planted  the  banner  of  France  and  took  possession  of 
the  great  stream  and  the  surrounding  country  in  the  name 
of  Louis  XIV.  He  named  the  country  Louisiana,  after  this 
monarch,  and  afterward  sought  to  found  a  colony  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi ;  but  through  an  error  the  colony 
landed  on  the  coast  of  Texas,  where  it  was  subsequently 
destroyed  by  the  Spaniards.  La  Salle 
started  on  foot  for  Canada  to  obtain 
aid  for  the  suffering  colonists,  but  had 
not  gone  far  before  he  was  murdered 
by  some  mutinous  companions. 

Work  and  Claims  of  the  French. — 
The   French  in  America   at   the   date 
now  reached  were  not  numerous,  but 
their  enterprise  had  been  great.     They 
had  explored  the   Great  Lakes,   trav 
ersed   Lakes   Champlain   and    George, 
passed  down  the  Mississippi  from  the 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony  to  the  Gulf,  and 
journeyed  widely  through  the  interior.     Here  and  there 
they  had  planted  settlements  in  the  wilderness,  and  had 
established  military  posts  on  the  lakes  and  the  Mississippi. 


A  FRENCH  WOODSMAN. 


THE   ENGLISH   EXPLORERS.  53 

Their  claims  were  greater  than  their  discoveries,  especially 
those  made  by  La  Salle,  which  covered  the  whole  valley 
of  the  Mississippi  as  far  east  as  the  Alleghanies  and  indefi 
nitely  westward. 

3.  THE  ENGLISH  EXPLORERS. 

Beginnings  of  English  Exploration. — Though  an  English 
expedition,  that  of  the  Cabots,  was  the  first  to  discover  North 
America,  the  English  were  slower  than  the  French  in  ex 
ploring  it.  They  did  not  seek  American  waters  until  after 
1560,  when  Sir  John  Hawkins,  a  famous  sailor,  began  to 
kidnap  negroes  in  Africa  and  sell  them  as  slaves  to  the 
Spanish  in  the  West  Indies.  At  that  time  few  people  saw 
anything  wrong  in  slavery.  Hawkins  was  looked  upon  as 
honest  and  pious.  He  felt  that  he  was  helping  English  trade 
by  dealing  in  slaves,  and  had  on  his  coat  of  arms  a  picture 
of  a  negro  bound  with  a  cord. 

Sir  Francis  Drake. — Other  English  mariners  engaged  in 
piracy,  seizing  the  Spanish  treasure-ships  and  robbing  them 
of  their  gold  and  silver.  Among  these  was  another  famous 
English  seaman,  Sir  Francis  Drake.  His  expeditions  against 
the  Spanish  ships  and  settlements  began  in  1567  and  ended 
in  1595.  In  1577  he  sailed  on  a  piratical  expedition  to  the 
Pacific,  gained  great  treasure  by  plunder  on  the  coasts  of 
Chile  and  Peru,  and  sailed  north  as  far  as  the  coast  of 
Oregon,  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  passage  to  the  Atlantic. 
He  landed  at  Drake's  Bay,  north  of  San  Francisco,  and 
claimed  the  country  for  the  King  of  England,  giving  it  the 
name  of  New  Albion.  He  returned  home  by  way  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  was  thus  the  second  to  circum 
navigate  the  globe. 

The  Northwest  Passage. — This  kind  of  enterprise  was 
not  very  creditable  to  England.  It  was  followed  by  efforts 


54  THE   ERA   OF   EXPLORATION. 

at  exploration.  In  1576,  nearly  eighty  years  after  the 
voyages  of  the  Cabots,  another  expedition  sought  North 
America.  This  was  commanded  by  Sir  Martin  Frobisher, 
who  hoped  to  find  a  northwest  passage  to  Asia  by  which 
English  ships  could  reach  India,  since  at  that  time  the  Portu 
guese  controlled  the  route  thither  by  way  of  Africa,  and 
had  the  monopoly  of  the  trade.  He  discovered  Frobisher 
Bay  and  brought  back  much  information  about  the  Eski 
mos.1  Captain  John  Davis  made  three  voyages  northward 
for  the  same  purpose  (1585-89),  but  did  little  beyond  dis 
covering  Davis  Strait.  These  were  the  first  polar  explora 
tions. 

Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. — The  next  English  explorer  was 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  who  sailed  west  in  1579,  with  a 
grant  from  Queen  Elizabeth  of  any  new  lands  he  might 
discover.  His  first  effort  failed,  and  in  1583  he  went  again, 
with  the  purpose  of  planting  a  colony  in  the  new  world. 
Landing  on  Newfoundland,  he  claimed  that  island  for  the 
queen.2  Again  he  met  with  wreck,  and  started  home  in 
his  smallest  vessel.  A  storm  arose  and  the  ship  and  crew 


1  He  brought  back  a  black  stone  which  the  London  goldsmiths  said 
contained  gold,  and  the  story  soon  gained  currency  that  the  lucky  ex 
plorer  had  found  the  place  where  King  Solomon  got  the  gold  for  his 
temple  in  Jerusalem.     A  stock  company  was  now  formed,  and  Fro 
bisher  went  back  with  fifteen  ships  and  a  colony,  which  returned  with 
him,  though  he  brought  several  ship-loads  of  the  black  stones.     That 
is  the  last  we  hear  of  Solomon's  mines  or  the  gold-bearing  stones. 
But  we  do  hear  that  a  few  years  later  Frobisher's  wife  was  begging 
help  from  the  government. 

2  At  that  time  there  were  more  ships  finding  their  way  to  the  Ameri 
can  coast  than  we  have  any  record  of  in  history.     When  Gilbert  entered 
the  harbor  of  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  he  found  there  thirty-six  ves 
sels  belonging  to  various  nations.    It  is  said  that  at  that  early  date  four 
hundred  vessels  annually  visited  Newfoundland. 


THE   ENGLISH   EXPLORERS. 


55 


went  down.  Only  one  vessel  of  the  fleet  escaped  to  report 
Gilbert's  loss.1 

English  Lethargy. — Nearly  a  century  had  now  passed 
since  the  voyages  of  the  Cabots,  and,  beyond  the  effort  of 
Gilbert,  no  attempt  had  been 
made  to  take  possession  of  the 
territory  claimed  for  the  English 
crown.  Spain  had  established 
herself  in  Florida  and  the  south, 
drawn  thither  by  the  lure  of 
gold.  France  was  preparing  to 
colonize  the  Canadian  north, 
drawn  by  the  lure  of  fish  and 
furs.  A  broad  region  of  unoc 
cupied  and  unexplored  country 
lay  between,  waiting  for  an  oc 
cupant. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  — The 

first  who  made  an  effort  to  take  possession  of  this  territory 
was  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (raw'le),  half-brother  to  Sir  Hum 
phrey  Gilbert,  and  a  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  When  she 
learned  that  her  favorite  courtier  wished  to  colonize  the 
new  world  she  gave  him  a  charter  granting  him  the  right 
to  settle  any  territory  not  occupied  by  Christian  settlers, 
and  making  him  governor  and  law-maker  for  the  colony, 
though  she  stipulated  that  the  colonists  should  have  all  the 
political  and  religious  rights  of  Englishmen. 

Raleigh's  Colonies. — Raleigh  was  not  able  to  go  in  per- 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH. 


1  When  the  storm  arose  Gilbert  was  asked  by  the  captain  of  the 
larger  ship  to  come  on  board  his  vessel.  But  he  refused  to  desert  his 
crew,  saying,  "We  are  as  near  to  heaven  by  sea  as  by  land."  Night 
fell,  and  when  day  dawned  again  the  vessel  had  disappeared. 


56  THE  ERA  OF  EXPLORATION. 

son,  but  he  sent  out  several  expeditions,  the  first  in  1584, 
the  last  in  1587.  They  landed  on  Roanoke  Island,  on  the 
coast  of  what  is  now  North  Carolina,  though  Queen  Eliza 
beth  was  so  pleased  with  the  reports  of  the  beauty  and 
fertility  of  the  country  that  she  named  it  Virginia,  in  honor 
of  herself  as  a  virgin  queen.  The  first  American  child  of 
English  parents,  born  on  Roanoke  Island  in  1587,  was 
given  the  same  name,  being  called  Virginia  Dare. 

Raleigh's  colonies  did  not  prosper.  The  first  returned 
home  to  escape  starvation.1  War  with  Spain  prevented 
any  aid  being  sent  to  the  1587  colony  for  several  years, 
and  when  it  was  sent  the  colony  had  disappeared  and  no 
trace  of  it  could  be  found.  For  years  afterward  Raleigh 
sent  out  vessels  in  search  of  his  vanished  colony,  but  in 
vain.  He  finally  gave  up  the  enterprise  and  assigned  his 
rights  under  the  charter  to  a  company  of  London  merchants 
and  adventurers. 

Gosnold's  Expedition. — It  was  not  until  after  1600  that 
England  succeeded  in  planting  a  successful  colony  in 
America.  In  1602,  Bartholomew  Gosnold  crossed  the 
ocean  to  the  New  England  coast,  pursuing  the  direct 
course,  instead  of  following  the  southern  track  of  Colum 
bus,  as  had  been  the  custom.  He  discovered  a  cape  which 


1  The  colonists  brought  home  with  them  two  very  important  prod 
ucts  of  the  new  world.  One  of  these  was  the  potato,  which  was  soon 
found  to  be  a  valuable  article  of  food,  and  which  is  now  very  widely 
cultivated.  The  other  was  tobacco,  which  was  received  with  great 
favor  in  England,  and  in  time  grew  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
articles  of  American  exportation.  Raleigh  was  perhaps  the  first  who 
learned  to  smoke  it  in  England.  The  story  is  told  that,  while  he  was 
smoking  one  morning,  a  servant  who  was  bringing  him  a  mug  of  ale 
became  frightened  on  seeing  a  cloud  of  smoke  issuing  from  his  mouth, 
and  flung  the  ale  in  his  face  to  extinguish  the  fancied  flames. 


THE   ENGLISH   EXPLORERS.  57 

he  named  Cape  Cod,  from  the  great  number  of  codfish 
found  there,  and  built  on  Cuttyhunk  Island  the  first  house 
erected  in  Massachusetts.  He  proposed  to  leave  a  colony 
there,  but  finding  an  abundance  of  sassafras-root  and  cedar 
logs,  then  valuable  in  England,  he  loaded  his  vessel  with 
these  and  returned. 

The  London  and  Plymouth  Companies. — The  next  step 
in  the  history  of  American  colonization  was  taken  by  James 
I.,  who  became  King  of  England  in  1603.  In  1606  he  gave 
a  charter  to  two  companies  to  colonize  America.  One  of 
these  was  formed  of  London  merchants,  and  was  called  the 
London  Company.  The  other  was  formed  of  people  of 
Plymouth  and  its  vicinity,  and  was  called  the  Plymouth 
Company.  Virginia,  which  they  were  to  colonize,  was  then 
held  to  extend  from  Florida  to  Canada. 

North  and  South  Virginia. — The  charter  granted  to  the 
London  Company  the  tract  between  latitudes  34°  and  38°, 
extending  from  about  Cape  Fear  to  the  mouth  of  the  Poto 
mac.  This  was  called  South  Virginia.  To  the  Plymouth 
Company  was  granted  the  tract  between  latitudes  41°  and 
45°,  or  from  about  Long  Island  to  Nova  Scotia.  This  was 
called  North  Virginia.  The  middle  strip,  between  the  Poto 
mac  and  the  Hudson,  was  open  to  both  companies,  though 
each  was  to  possess  the  country  for  one  hundred  miles 
around  any  settlement  it  should  make  in  this  region. 

It  was  later  added  that  these  strips  of  land  should  extend 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Men  then  had  very  vague 
ideas  how  far  off  the  Pacific  was,  and  several  sought  to 
reach  it  by  sailing  up  the  rivers  from  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Attempts  at  Colonization. — In  1607  both  companies 
tried  to  form  colonies.  Sir  George  Popham  made  an 
attempt,  under  the  Plymouth  Company,  to  found  a  colony 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec,  Maine.  But  the  winter  was 


58  THE  ERA  OF  EXPLORATION. 

severe,  and  in  the  spring  the  half-starved  and  half-frozen 
emigrants  gladly  made  their  way  home. 

In  the  same  year  the  London  Company  sent  out  a  colony 
which  narrowly  escaped  a  similar  fate.  It  landed  at  a  point 
on  James  River,  and  founded  at  Jamestown1  the  FIRST  PER 
MANENT  ENGLISH  COLONY  IN  AMERICA. 

4.    THE  DUTCH   EXPLORERS. 

Henry  Hudson's  Expedition. — Two  years  afterward,  in 
1609,  the  Dutch  made  their  first  effort  to  explore  the  New 
______  '••''*'T'-J:-   ;.     World.      They    had    a 

flourishing  trade  with 
the  East  Indies  (Hindu 
stan  and  the  adjoining 
islands),  and  it  was  with 
a  hope  of  finding  a  west 
ward  passage  to  that 
region  that  Henry  Hud 
son,  an  Englishman  in 
the  service  of  Holland, 
was  sent  across  the 
Atlantic. 

In  his  little  ship,  the 
Half-Moon,  he  entered 
New  York  Bay,  and 

THE  HALF-MOON  IN  THE  HUDSON.  Salled     UP     the    Hudson, 

the  river  that  bears  his 

name,  to  the  head  of  tide-water,  near  Albany.     He  hoped 
that  this  stream  would  lead  him  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.     In 


1  The  names  James  River  and  Jamestown  were  given  in  honor  of 
James  I.  of  England.  The  headlands  at  the  river's  outlet  were  named 
Cape  Henry  and  Cape  Charles  from  the  king's  sons. 


VIRGINIA.    TERRITORY  CLAIMED  BY  THE 
ENGLISH. 


NEW  FRANCE.    TERRITORY  CLAIMED  BY  THE 
FRENCH. 


FLORIDA.    TERRITORY  CLAIMED  BY  THE  NEW  NETHERLAND.    TERRITORY  CLAIMED  BY 

SPANISH.  THE  DUTCH. 

59 


60  THE  ERA   OF  EXPLORATION. 

this,  of  course,  he  failed ;  but  it  was  found  that  the  Indians 
had  valuable  furs,  which  they  were  eager  to  trade  for 
knives,  hatchets,  and  other  goods,  and  Dutch  traders  soon 
made  their -way  to  the  Hudson.  By  1614  a  trading  station 
was  established  on  Manhattan  Island,  at  the  river's  mouth. 
This  station  was  the  beginning  of  the  great  city  of  New 
York. 

Claims  of  the  European  Nations. — Though  the  settle 
ments  of  England,  France,  and  Spain  on  United  States 
territory  were  still  very  small  their  claims  were  large. 
The  Spanish  held  that  Florida  extended  northward  without 
definite  limit.  Their  claim  was  founded  on  the  discovery 
by  Columbus  and  the  explorations  of  De  Leon  and  others. 
The  French  claimed  that  New  France,  as  their  domain  in 
America  was  called,  extended  on  the  Atlantic  from  New 
York  to  Labrador,  and  embraced  the  basins  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  River,  with  all  their  tributary 
streams.  This  claim  was  founded  on  the  discoveries  of 
Verrazano,  Cartier,  Champlain,  and  La  Salle.  The  English 
claim  extended  from  Labrador  to  Florida,  and  westward  to 
the  Pacific.  It  was  based  on  the  voyages  of  the  Cabots. 
New  Netherlands,  the  Dutch  claim,  was  held  to  extend 
from  Cape  May  to  Nova  Scotia,  and  indefinitely  westward. 
It  was  founded  on  the  discoveries  of  Henry  Hudson.  In 
all  this  vast  territory  there  were  but  a  few  hundred  white 
settlers.  Yet  the  rival  claims  were  almost  sure  to  end  in 
a  struggle  for  possession,  and  finally  brought  on  a  bitter 
war  between  England  and  France. 


III. 
THE   ERA   OF   SETTLEMENT. 


i.  THE   COLONY  IN  VIRGINIA. 

Colonial  Diversity. — We  have  hitherto  dealt  with  the 
roots  of  American  history.  From  these  roots  grew  up  a 
number  of  separate  and  unlike  stems,  which  in  the  end 
combined  to  form  one  great  national  trunk.  In  other  words, 
from  the  work  of  the  explorers  and  settlers  arose  a  number 
of  distinct  colonies,  which  finally  united  into  the  federal 
republic  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

These  colonies  were  like  so  many  separate  nations,  each 
with  a  history  of  its  own.  We  are  obliged,  therefore,  to 
tell  a  number  of  stories  instead  of  a  single  story.  At  the 
time  of  the  Revolution  there  were  thirteen  such  colonies. 
But  it  does  not  follow  that  we  have  thirteen  stories  to  tell. 
The  New  England  colonies  have  but  one  history.  The 
history  of  New  Jersey  is  subordinate  to  that  of  New  York. 
Delaware  was  until  the  Revolution  a  part  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  two  Carolinas  were  long  a  single  colony.  As  a  result 
we  have,  instead  of  thirteen,  only  seven  stories  to  tell.  And 
these  during  the  wars  with  the  French  colonies  flow  together 
and  become  a  single  story.  From  that  time  forward  there 
is  but  one  colonial  history. 

The  Settlement  of  Jamestown. — In  1607  the  London 
Company,  being  desirous  of  planting  a  colony  within  its 
territory,  sent  out  three  ships  with  one  hundred  and  five 
colonists,  all  men.  Of  these,  fifty-two  were  "  gentlemen," 

61 


62  THE   ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

—that  is,  persons  of  good  family,  not  accustomed  to  labor. 
The  others  were  mechanics  and  tradesmen.  Captain  New 
port,  the  commander,  was  directed  to  land  on  Roanoke 
Island,  the  seat  of  Raleigh's  unfortunate  colonies.  But  a 
storm  forced  the  fleet  to  seek  refuge  in  Chesapeake  Ray,  and 
there  they  sailed  up  a  river,  which  they  named  the  James. 

The  situation  was  attractive.  The  banks  of  the  river 
were  covered  with  flowers.  The  country  seemed  likely  to 
make  excellent  farming  territory.  It  is  said  that  the  Indians 
called  it  the  "  good  land.1'  The  colonists,  therefore,  deter 
mined  to  remain  there,  and  landed,  May  13,  1607,  on  a 
peninsula  which  they  named  Jamestown. 

Unfortunate  Conditions. — Unfortunately,  they  had  not 
been  wisely  chosen.  There  were  too  many  "  gentlemen" 
in  their  ranks.  There  were  no  women.  They  were  more 
inclined  to  hunt  for  gold  than  to  build  comfortable  habita 
tions  and  till  the  ground.  Their  food  gave  out.  The  spot 
proved  unhealthy.  Within  four  months  half  of  them  had 
died  of  fever  or  been  killed  by  the  Indians,  who  proved 
hostile.  The  rest  of  them  would  have  perished  from  starva 
tion  had  not  some  friendly  Indians  brought  them  corn.  Rut 
when  autumn  came  the  frosts  stopped  the  fever,  game  was 
found  in  abundance,  and  log  huts  were  built  in  which  to 
pass  the  winter.  Affairs  now  began  to  look  brighter. 

Captain  John  Smith. — The  safety  and  success  of  the 
colony  were  due  to  one  man,  Captain  John  Smith,  a  man 
of  remarkable  powers  and  resources,  and  of  a  history  replete 
with  stirring  adventures.  It  may  safely  be  said  that  but  for 
him  the  colony  at  Jamestown  would  soon  have  proved  a 
failure.1 

1  The  story  of  Smith  is  one  of  high  interest.  He  was  born  in  1579, 
fought  while  quite  young  in  the  wars  in  the  Netherlands,  was  ship- 


THE   COLONY   IN   VIRGINIA. 


JOHN  SMITH. 


Smith  seeks  the  Pacific. — Smith  kept  himself  busy  in 
exploring  the  country.  One  of  his  expeditions  was  made  for 
the  purpose  of  seeking  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  This  was  done  by  order 
of  the  company,  who  supposed 
that  a  journey  of  two  hundred 
miles  might  bring  them  to  it.1 
As  the  James  River  had  already 
been  tried  in  vain,  the  Chicka- 
hominy  was  now  attempted. 

The  Adventure  with  Pow- 
hatan. — In  this  expedition  Smith 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  In 
dians  and  brought  before  Pow- 
hatan,  the  great  chief  of  the 
neighboring  tribe.  His  wit  now 

saved  his  life.  He  amazed  the  Indians  by  showing  them 
his  pocket  compass,  and  astonished  them  by  writing  a  letter 
to  Jamestown,  which  informed  his  friends  of  his  misfortune. 
They  could  not  comprehend  the  mystery  of  "  talking  paper.1' 

But,  according  to  the  story  of  Captain  Smith,  it  needed 
more  than  this  to  save  his  life.  He  tells  us  that  Powhatan 
condemned  him  to  death,  and  had  ordered  a  warrior  to 
knock  out  his  brains  with  a  club,  when  Pocahontas,  the 
youthful  daughter  of  the  chief,  ran  forward,  clasped  her 
arms  around  his  head,  and  prevented  the  blow. 

wrecked,  robbed,  and  fell  into  great  want  in  France.  He  afterward 
fought  against  the  Turks,  and  killed  three  of  them  in  single  combat. 
He  was  taken  prisoner,  made  a  slave,  and  escaped  by  killing  his  master. 
Making  his  way  back  to  England,  he  joined  the  colony  about  to  sail  for 
America.  He  was  brave  and  able,  but  vain  and  boastful. 

1  A  map  sold  in  London  in  1651  represents  Virginia  as  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  between  the  two  oceans. 


64 


THE  ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 


As  we  have  only  Smith's  word  for  this  romantic  incident, 
and  as  he  was  in  the  habit  of  boasting  of  his  exploits,  many 
doubt  this  story.  But  it  may  be  true,  for  white  men  have 
often  been  saved  by  the  interference  of  Indian  women. 

Smith's  Activity  and  Energy. — Smith  was  certainly  an 
active  and  energetic  man  and  the  soul  of  the  colony.  He 

had  been  appointed  by 
the  king  one  of  its  gov 
erning  council,  and  soon 
became  president  of  the 
council  and  the  acting 
governor  of  the  colony. 
As  an  explorer  he  kept 
himself  busy,  sailing  up 
Chesapeake  Bay,  enter 
ing  its  inlets  and  rivers, 
obtaining  food  from  the 
Indians  by  coaxing  or 
threatening,  and  in  other 
ways  making  himself 
useful. 

Pools'  Gold.  —  He 
had  enough  to  do  to 
keep  the  colonists  from 
ruining  themselves. 

One  of  them  found  a  yellow  substance  which  he  thought 
was  gold.  At  once,  in  spite  of  Smith's  protests,  they  aban 
doned  everything  else  and  set  to  work  digging  this  worthless 
stuff  and  loading  a  vessel  with  it.  On  reaching  England 
the  cargo  proved  to  be  what  is  known  as  iron  pyrites,  a 
yellow  mineral  which  has  been  well  named  "  fools'  gold." 

Laziness  and  Profanity  Overcome. — But  to  make  the 
people  work  was  no  easy  task.  Smith  tried  a  radical  plan, 


SMITH  MEETING  THE  INDIANS. 


THE    COLONY    IN    VIRGINIA.  65 

those  who  would  not  work  being  given  nothing  to  eat. 
Swearing  seems  to  have  been  an  epidemic  in  the  colony, 
but  he  broke  that  up  by  having  a  can  of  cold  water  poured 
down  the  sleeve  of  each  swearer  for  every  oath.  He  had 
won  the  friendship  of  Powhatan,  and  the  troubles  with  the 
Indians  ceased.  They  came  to  look  on  Captain  Smith  as  a 
superior  being,  and  when  rain  was  wanted  used  to  beg  him 
to  pray  for  it. 

Smith  Returns. — Under  his  directions  some  more  com 
fortable  houses  were  built  and  a  number  of  fields  were 
cleared  and  planted  with  corn.  All  would  perhaps  have 
gone  well  now  but  for  a  serious  accident  to  the  redoubt 
able  captain.  In  1609  he  was  badly  injured  by  the  explo 
sion  of  a  bag  of  gunpowder  and  obliged  to  return  to  England. 
He  never  came  back  to  Virginia. 

The  Starving-  Time. — The  departure  of  Captain  Smith 
was  like  the  removal  of  a  safety-valve  from  an  engine. 
The  people  at  once  fell  back  into  laziness  and  improvidence. 
Work  ceased.  The  food  was  consumed,  the  Indians  became 
hostile  again,  and  refused  to  bring  food.  New  colonists 
came,  men  and  women  now,  but  they  were  the  refuse  of 
London  streets  and  jails,  and  matters  grew  worse  instead 
of  better.  ^ 

In  the  winter  of  1609-10  affairs  in  the  colony  reached 
their  lowest  ebb.  Sickness  arid  famine  attacked  the  people. 
Some  of  them  were  killed  by  the  Indians.  Others  seized  a 
vessel  and  sailed  away  as  pirates.  Death  assailed  the 
settlers  on  all  sides,  and  when  spring  came  only  sixty  out 
of  about  five  hundred  persons  remained  alive.  That  mis 
erable  winter  was  well  named  "  The  Starving  Time." 

The  Colony  Abandoned. — In  the  spring  a  vessel  came, 
bringing  Sir  Thomas  Gates  and  Sir  George  Somers,  who 
had  been  wrecked  on  the  Bermuda  Islands  the  autumn 

6 


66  THE  ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

before.  They  found  matters  in  so  desperate  a  state  that  it 
was  resolved  to  abandon  the  country  and  take  the  few 
survivors  back  to  England.  Some  of  the  settlers,  glad  to 
escape  from  that  wretched  place,  proposed  to  burn  James 
town,  but  fortunately  this  was  not  done.  There  was  none 
to  shed  a  tear  over  their  ruined  hopes,  none  that  mourned 
their  wrecked  enterprise. 

Lord  Delaware  Arrives. — They  had  actually  embarked 
and  dropped  some  distance  down  the  river  with  the  tide, 
when  they  met  a  fleet  of  ships  coming  up  the  stream.  It 
was  commanded  by  Lord  Delaware,  who  had  been  ap 
pointed  governor  of  Virginia  by  the  London  Company,  and 
given  a  new  charter  under  which  he  had  entire  control  of 
the  colony.  The  ships  contained  abundant  supplies  and  a 
new  company  of  colonists,  and  at  the  command  of  the  new 
governor  the  vessel  turned  back  and  Jamestown  was  once 
more  saved  from  ruin.  Lord  Delaware,  on  landing,  fell 
upon  his  knees  and  thanked  God  that  he  had  come  in  time 
to  save  Virginia. 

Governor  Dale. — Lord  Delaware  remained  but  a  few 
months,  ill  health  obliging  him  to  return.  Governor  Dale, 
a  stern  old  soldier,  succeeded  him.  He  was  a  rigid  marti 
net.  If  a  colonist  dared  to  criticise  his  doings,  he  had  a 
hole  bored  through  his  tongue.  A  man  who  refused  to  go 
to  church  was  starved  and  whipped  until  he  changed  his 
mind. 

Communism. — Yet  with  all  his  strictness  he  had  good 
sense.  Up  to  this  time  the  colony  had  been  conducted  on 
the  plan  of  communism.  That  is,  there  was  no  separate 
property.  All  things  belonged  to  the  community.  All 
products  were  brought  to  the  public  storehouse,  out  of 
which  every  one  was  fed.  This  system  was  well  meant, 
but  it  did  not  work  well,  since  it  discouraged  industry  and 


THE   COLONY   IN  VIRGINIA.  67 

encouraged  idleness.  The  lazy  would  not  work  at  all  if 
they  could  get  food  without.  The  industrious  would  not 
work  hard  if  they  were  to  be  no  better  off  for  it. 

A  Change  of  Plan. — Governor  Dale  changed  this  system. 
He  gave  every  settler  a  tract  of  land,  on  which  he  could 
work  for  himself.  At  a  later  date  any  one  was  permitted 
to  purchase  one  hundred  acres.  At  once  a  new  spirit  was 
shown.  Work  became  brisk.  Even  the  lazy  were  spurred 
to  exertion.  It  was  now  only  required  that  each  farmer 
should  bring  yearly  two  arid  a  half  bushels  of  corn  to  the 
public  granary,  as  a  tax  in  kind. 

A  New  Industry. — In  1612,  John  Rolfe,  a  prominent 
settler,  began  the  systematic  culture  of  tobacco.  This  plant 
was  rapidly  becoming  an  article  of  common  use  in  Eng 
land.  King  James  was  strongly  opposed  to  it,  and  wrote  a 
pamphlet  called  "  Counterblast  against  Tobacco."  But  as 
his  people  smoked  in  spite  of  his  counterblast,  he  tried  to 
make  it  of  use  by  laying  a  heavy  tax  on  it.1 

The  demand  for  tobacco  increased.  By  1616  the  settlers 
were  giving  nearly  all  their  time  to  it.  At  one  time  it  was 
planted  even  in  the  streets  of  Jamestown.  Its  cultivation 
quickly  carried  the  colony  from  adversity  to  prosperity. 
Many  English  farmers  now  came  to  Virginia,  hoping  to 
make  their  fortunes  from  the  new  plant.  By  1619  the 
annual  shipment  of  tobacco  to  England  was  more  than 
forty  thousand  pounds.  By  1670  it  reached  twelve  million 
pounds. 

The  Effect  of  this  Industry. — As  a  result  of  this  cul 
ture  nearly  all  the  Virginians  became  farmers.  Few  towns 

1  Tobacco  had  long  been  in  use  by  the  Indians.  Its  name  is  believed 
to  have  been  derived  from  "  tabaco,"  the  Carib  name  for  the  instru 
ment  used  in  inhaling  its  smoke.  It  was  first  brought  to  England  by 
Sir  Francis  Drake. 


68 


THE   ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 


were  built.  Tobacco  plantations  were  formed  on  the  banks 
of  all  the  rivers,  where  vessels  could  load  and  whence  the 
tobacco  could  be  shipped  direct  to  England.  In  time  plan 
tations  lined  both  banks  of  the  James  for  many  miles, 
while  the  culture  flourished  also  on  the  banks  of  the 
Chesapeake  and  of  its  smaller  rivers. 

Marriage  of  Pocahontas. — John  Rolfe,  who  introduced 
the  culture  of  tobacco  in  1612,  married  the  following  year, 

his  wife  being  Pocahontas,  the 
Indian  maiden  who  had  saved 
Captain  Smith's  life,  and  who 
had  now  grown  to  Avomanhood. 
She  was  baptized  in  the  little 
church  of  Jamestown,  and  there 
married  to  young  Rolfe.  Three 
years  afterward  he  took  her  to 
England,  where  her  grace  and 
simplicity  of  manners  won  the 
greatest  admiration.  As  she 
was  about  to  return  to  Virginia 
with  her  husband,  she  suddenly 
sickened  and  died.  She  left  an 

infant  son,  who  gained  distinction  in  later  life,  and  from 
whom  many  Virginians  of  to-day  are  indirectly  or  directly 
descended. 

This  marriage  had  one  important  effect.  It  won  the 
friendship  of  Powhatan,  the  father  of  Pocahontas,  for  the 
colonists.  There  was  no  more  trouble  with  the  Indians 
while  he  lived,  while  his  death  was  quickly  followed  by  a 
massacre. 

Importation  of  "Women. — Rolfe 's  seeking  an  Indian 
bride  may  have  been  partly  due  to  the  lack  of  young 
women  in  Virginia.  There  were  married  women  there, 


POCAHONTAS. 


THE  COLONY  IN  VIRGINIA,  69 

but  few  maidens.  This  was  a  serious  defect  in  the  organi 
zation  of  the  colony,  and  the  London  Company,  perceiving 
this  want,  sent  over  ninety  young  women  as  wives  for  the 
colonists.  The  price  for  the  passage  of  each  was  fixed  at 
one  hundred  pounds  of  the  best  tobacco, — afterward  it  went 
up  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds, — a  sum  which  had  to 
be  paid  by  the  young  planters  who  wanted  these  maidens 
for  wives.  The  price  was  willingly  paid,  and  the  demand 
was  so  brisk  that  the  first  importation  was  quickly  disposed 
of,  and  others  were  sent  for. 

The  Need  of  Laborers. — The  demand  for  new  immi 
grants  was  not  confined  to  wives.  Laborers  were  as 
greatly  needed.  The  rapidly  growing  cultivation  of  the 
tobacco  plant  had  caused  the  taking  up  of  large  tracts  of 
land,  divided  into  numerous  plantations,  and  needing 
many  hands  alike  for  work  in  the  fields,  the  curing  of  the 
leaf,  and  its  conveyance  to  the  water's  edge  for  shipment 
abroad. 

The  Apprentice  System. — This  need  was  filled  in  a 
violent  manner,  well  suited  to  the  character  of  the  times, 
but  which  would  be  impossible  in  these  days.  Shiploads 
of  criminals  were  taken  from  the  crowded  prisons  of  Eng 
land  and  sent  to  Virginia  to  be  sold  into  years  of  slavery. 
This  business  became  profitable,  and  the  numbers  were 
added  to  by  kidnapping.  Gypsies,  vagabonds,  and  orphan 
children  were  seized  in  the  English  seaports  and  sent  as 
laborers  across  the  ocean.  The  vile  gangs  of  kidnappers 
did  not  confine  themselves  to  this  class,  but  reputable  per 
sons  were  sometimes  added  to  the  number.  Some  enter 
prising  young  men  without  money,  who  wanted  to  get  to 
America,  came  over  willingly  in  this  way. 

In  Virginia  these  persons  were  bound  out  to  labor  for  a 
term  of  years.  They  were  called  "  indentured  servants," 


70 


THE   ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 


but  were  practically  slaves  during  their  term  of  service. 
When  set  free  some  of  them  became  planters  themselves ; 
some  fell  back  into  their  old  idle  vagabondage ;  some  made 
their  way  to  the  frontier  and  became  hunters  and  trappers. 

Negro  Slavery. — In  August,  1619,  a  Dutch  vessel  came 
into  the  James  River,  and  sold  twenty  negroes  as  slaves  to 
the  colonists.  As  they  proved  useful  on  the  plantations, 
others  were  soon  brought.  By  the  year  1700  there  were 
enough  of  them  to  serve  the  purposes  of  the  planters,  and 
the  system  of  white  apprenticeship  soon  ceased. 

System  of  Government. — Up  to  1619  the  colonists  were 
virtually  slaves  themselves.  They  had  no  voice  in  their 
own  gov 
ernment, 
but  were 
ruled  ab 
solutely 
by a coun 
cil  which 
was  ruled 
by  the 

king.  When  governors  came, 
beginning  with  Lord  Dela 
ware,  they  had  arbitrary 
power,  and  used  it  in  an  arbi 
trary  fashion.  They  made 
what  laws  they  pleased,  and 
forced  the  people  to  work  for 
the  benefit  of  the  company. 

This    system   worked    well 

......        r,  i  i  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES. 

enough  with  the  French  and 

Spanish  colonists,  who  had  been  governed  in  much  the 

same  way  at  home,  and  knew  no  better  method.     It  did 


THE  COLONY  IN  VIRGINIA.  71 

not  work  so  well  with  Englishmen,  who  had  long  possessed 
a  voice  in  their  own  government  by  electing  the  members 
of  parliament  who  made  the  laws.  In  1619  there  were 
four  thousand  white  people  in  Virginia,  and  they  had 
grown  tired  of  being  treated  as  children  or  slaves. 

The  First  Colonial  Assembly. — The  people  were  divided 
into  eleven  settlements  or  "boroughs."  Oppressed  by 
Argall,  a  deputy  governor,  they  demanded  a  reform  in  the 
government,  and  the  London  Company  consented  to  give 
them  a  voice  in  legislation.  Governor  Yeardley,  who  was 
sent  to  succeed  Argall,  called  on  the  boroughs  to  elect  each 
two  "  burgesses,"  or  representatives,  to  be  members  of  a 
law-making  assembly  called  to  meet  at  Jamestown. 

This  assembly  was  made  up  of  the  governor  and  the 
council,  chosen  by  the  company,  and  the  burgesses,  elected 
by  the  people.  It  met  in  the  choir  of  the  little  church  at 
Jamestown,  July  30,  1619,  being  the  first  legislative  body 
ever  formed  in  America.  Thus  was  the  English  system  of 
self-government  transferred  to  Virginia.  The  assembly  was 
called  the  House  of  Burgesses.1  The  laws  passed  by  it 
needed  to  be  ratified  by  the  London  Company ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  orders  of  the  company  had  to  be  ratified 
by  the  assembly.  Virginia,  therefore,  was  given  a  large 
share  in  its  own  government.2 

Virginia  a  Royal  Province. — King  James  of  England, 
who  did  not  strongly  favor  the  freedom  of  the  people,  was 
not  pleased  with  this  action  of  the  London  Company.  He 

1  One  of  the  burgesses  in  the  first  assembly  was  named  Jefferson. 
More  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  afterward  a  descendant  of  this 
man,  named  Thomas  Jefferson,  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

2  In  1620  the  privileges  given  to  the  people  were  confirmed  in  a 
written  constitution,  an  instrument  under  which  Virginia  long  con 
tinued  a  self-governed  community. 


72  THE   ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

disliked  the  company  for  other  reasons.  As  Virginia  had 
grown  populous,  the  company  had  become  rich  and  pow 
erful.  Among  its  members  were  several  peers  and  many 
rich  merchants.  In  politics  it  supported  the  party  opposed 
to  the  king,  and  he  determined  to  rob  it  of  its  power. 

To  do  this  he  charged  it  with  mismanagement  and  brought 
suit  against  it  in  the  courts.  The  judges  favored  the  king, 
— as  judges  were  very  apt  to  do  at  that  time, — and  the 
company  lost  its  charter,  and  with  it  its  power.  This  was 
in  1624.  Virginia  thus  became  a  royal  province,  or  one 
under  the  direct  rule  of  the  king.  Fortunately,  he  did  not 
deprive  it  of  self-government,  but  he  set  to  work  to  write 
out  for  it  a  new  code  of  laws.  Before  this  was  ready  he 
died  (in  March,  1625),  and  his  son,  Charles  I.,  became 
king. 

.  Charles  I.  did  not  like  free  government  any  more  than 
his  father  had  done.  But  he  got  into  so  much  trouble  at 
home  in  trying  to  govern  England  without  a  parliament  that 
he  had  little  time  to  occupy  himself  with  matters  abroad. 
So  Virginia  kept  its  House  of  Burgesses  and  its  power  of 
making  laws  and  voting  taxes. 

The  Indians  Peaceful. — While  these  political  movements 
were  in  progress,  and  Virginia  was  rapidly  growing  in 
wealth  and  population,  the  Indians  were  quiet  and  peaceful. 
Powhatan  had  remained  the  firm  friend  of  the  whites,  and 
efforts  were  being  made  to  civilize  and  educate  the  savages. 
But  Powhatan  died  in  1618,  his  brother,  Opechan'kano, 
became  chief  of  the  confederacy  of  tribes,  and  a  change  of 
feeling  arose. 

The  Massacre. — The  new  chief  vowed  that  the  sky 
should  fall  before  he  would  break  the  peace.  But  he  was 
secretly  jealous  of  the  whites,  who  were  gradually  taking 
possession  of  the  land,  and  quietly  organized  a  conspiracy 


THE   COLONY   IN   VIRGINIA.  73 

for  their  extermination.  The  plot  was  kept  a  complete 
secret.  On  the  morning  fixed  for  the  massacre,  March  22, 
1622,  the  Indians  visited  the  houses  and  sat  at  the  tables 
of  their  former  friends.  Suddenly  the  work  of  death  began. 
At  a  fixed  moment  the  colonists  were  attacked  at  all  points 
and  slaughtered  without  mercy.  The  men  at  work  in  the 
fields  were  killed  with  their  own  hoes  and  hatchets.  Men 
and  women  in  the  houses  were  ruthlessly  slain.  Only 
one  settlement  escaped.  A  converted  Indian  had  warned 
a  friend,  and  he  put  Jamestown  and  the  surrounding 
plantations  on  their  guard.  Yet  so  murderous  was  the 
assault  that  in  that  day  of  blood  three  hundred  and 
forty-seven  men,  women,  and  children  fell  victims  to  their 
merciless  foes. 

Sympathy  for  the  Colonists. — This  dreadful  affair  was 
a  staggering  blow  to  the  colony.  It  was  the  more  so  since 
the  Indians  kept  up  their  attacks,  so  that  before  the  war 
ended  the  four  thousand  Virginians  were  reduced  to  two 
thousand  five  hundred.  Great  sympathy  was  felt  abroad. 
Even  King  James  was  kind  enough  to  send  over  some  useless 
old  arms  that  had  been  stored  in  the  Tower  of  London. 
Captain  Smith,  then  living  quietly  in  London,  offered  to  go 
over  to  the  help  of  the  colonists  if  the  company  would  send 
out  a  suitable  force.  But  the  company,  while  ready  with 
its  sympathy,  was  not  inclined  to  spend  its  profits  by 
providing  armed  men,  so  Smith  stayed  at  home,  and  the 
colonists  were  left  to  fight  for  themselves. 

Their  Revenge. — This  they  did  fiercely  and  bloodily. 
As  soon  as  the  first  panic  was  over  revenge  on  the  Indians 
began.  Their  villages  were  burned  ;  they  were  hunted  from 
place  to  place ;  they  were  killed  like  so  many  venomous 
snakes.  It  was  ten  years  before  peace  was  restored,  and 
by  that  time  great  numbers  of  Indians  had  been  slain. 


74  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

The  Second  Massacre. — Another  Indian  outbreak  took 
place  in  1644.  Five  hundred  persons  now  fell  dead  before 
the  weapons  of  the  savages.  As  before,  the  reprisal  was 
equally  bloody,  and  in  the  end  all  the  natives  were  driven 
from  the  settled  region,  which  was  kept  for  the  whites 
alone. 

Royal  Oppression. — Though  Charles  I.  had  enough  to 
keep  him  occupied  at  home,  he  managed  to  make  trouble 
for  his  loyal  subjects  in  Virginia.  In  1629  he  sent  over  Sir 
John  Harvey  as  governor,  and  Sir  John  soon  showed  his 
idea  of  public  honesty  by  robbing  the  treasury  and  trying 
to  sell  lands  belonging  to  individuals. 

In  six  years  the  people,  in  whom  the  spirit  of  freedom 
was  growing,  sent  home  this  titled  thief,  greatly  to  the  dis 
pleasure  of  the  king.  He  tried  to  send  Harvey  back,  but 
the  people  were  resolute,  the  king's  troubles  were  growing 
at  home,  and  he  settled  the  matter  by  sending  over  a  new 
governor,  Sir  William  Berkeley,  who  was  destined  to  prove 
worse  even  than  Harvey. 

Berkeley  as  Governor. — Berkeley  was  a  thorough  aris 
tocrat.  He  did  not  believe  in  popular  government  any 
more  than  the  king,  and  thanked  God  that  Virginia  had  no 
such  things  as  free  schools  and  a  printing-press.  He  retired 
from  office  while  Oliver  Cromwell  was  in  power,  but  in 
1660,  when  Charles  II.  came  to  the  throne,  Berkeley  became 
governor  again,  and  made  himself  the  autocrat  of  Virginia. 
For  sixteen  years  he  ruled  the  province  according  to  his 
own  will.  There  was  a  House  of  Burgesses,  it  is  true,  but 
the  members  were  in  sympathy  with  him,  and  during  all 
those  years  no  new  election  was  held,  so  that  the  people 
had  no  voice  in  the  government. 

Other  Measures  of  Oppression. — During  Cromwell's 
time  "  Navigation  Laws  "  were  passed  which  forbade  the 


THE  COLONY  IN  VIRGINIA.  75 

Virginians  to  send  tobacco  to  or  receive  goods  from  any 
country  except  England.  Charles  II.  determined  to  enforce 
these  laws,  which  had  not  been  strictly  obeyed.  The  result 
was  ruinous  to  the  planters.  As  they  had  only  an  English 
market,  they  must  sell  for  what  the  English  merchants 
chose  to  give,  and  pay  for  their  sugar,  cloth,  and  other 
goods  whatever  English  merchants  chose  to  ask. 

That  was  not  all,  nor  the  worst.  In  1673  the  profligate 
king  gave  away  the  whole  of  Virginia,  a  colony  then  con 
taining  forty  thousand  people,  to  two  of  his  favorites,  the 
Earl  of  Arlington  and  Lord  Culpeper,  as  coolly  as  if  he 
were  disposing  of  so  much  unoccupied  land. 

The  People  Rebellious. — It  was  not  very  easy,  even  at 
the  will  of  a  king,  for  two  men  to  take  possession  of  what 
was  almost  a  nation.  The  two  lords  did  not  find  it  con 
venient  to  lay  hold  of  their  new  estate,  with  its  angry 
thousands  of  landholders.  The  king's  gift  had  made  the 
people  rebellious.  Their  homes  and  estates  had  been 
granted  to  strangers,  they  had  no  assembly  to  represent 
and  protect  them,  their  taxes  were  enormous,  their  crops 
had  lost  most  of  their  value.  They  had  little  but  their 
lives,  and  these  now  became  endangered. 

The  Indians  on  the  War-Path.— In  1676  the  Indians 
again  rose  and  began  massacring  the  frontier  settlers. 
The  savages  had  been  treated  treacherously,  and  retaliated 
in  their  usual  way.  Defence  was  necessary,  and  the  gov 
ernor  was  appealed  to  for  aid.  He  declined  to  give  it. 
His  oppressive  government  had  made  him  so  many  enemies 
that  he  was  afraid  to  call  out  a  military  force,  lest  it  should 
turn  against  himself. 

In  this  dilemma  a  young  lawyer  and  planter,  Nathaniel 
Bacon  by  name,  a  member  of  the  governor's  council,  asked 
Berkeley  for  a  commission  to  raise  a  defensive  force.  It 


76  THE   ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

was  not  granted,  and  Bacon,  whose  own  plantation  was 
attacked,  raised  a  force  without  a  commission  and  pro 
ceeded  against  the  foe. 

Bacon's  Rebellion. — Bacon  defeated  the  enemy,  but  he 
infuriated  the  governor,  who  denounced  him  as  a  traitor. 
He  at  once  returned,  appeared  before  Jamestown,  and  by  a 
show  of  force  compelled  Berkeley  to  grant  him  the  com 
mission  and  to  order  the  election  of  a  new  assembly.  Of 
this  Bacon  was  made  a  member. 

The  Indians  were  still  in  arms,  and  twice  Bacon  pro 
ceeded  against  them.  But  he  was  no  sooner  out  of  sight 
than  Berkeley  again  proclaimed  him  a  traitor  and  his  men 
rebels.  There  was  nothing  left  for  the  people  but  civil 
war.  Twice  Bacon  returned  from  the  field  and  took  pos 
session  of  Jamestown.  On  the  second  occasion  (Septem 
ber,  1676)  it  was  set  on  fire  and  burned  to  the  ground, 
some  of  the  patriots  burning  their  own  dwellings  that  they 
might  not  become  places  of  shelter  for  the  enemy.  The 
town  was  never  rebuilt.  The  ruined  tower  of  the  old  brick 
church  is  nearly  the  only  relic  that  remains  of  it. 

Bacon's  Death. — So  far  the  people  were  successful.  How 
the  affair  would  have  ended  no  one  can  say,  for  in  his  hour 
of  triumph  the  bold  young  leader  took  sick  and  died  (Octo 
ber  1,  1676).  With  his  death  the  war  came  to  an  end. 
The  troops,  having  no  leader,  dispersed.  Berkeley  was  in 
power  again,  and  proceeded  to  use  his  power  mercilessly. 
He  hung  more  than  twenty  of  the  principal  people  with 
hardly  the  form  of  a  trial.  Peace  and  autocracy  were 
restored  with  the  aid  of  bloodshed.1  Just  a  century  after 

1  Drummond,  one  of  Bacon's  chief  supporters,  fell  into  Berkeley's 
hands.  "You  are  very  welcome,  Mr.  Drummond,"  said  the  vindictive 
governor.  "I  am  more  glad  to  see  you  than  any  man  in  Virginia. 
You  shall  be  hanged  in  half  an  hour."  And  he  was.  "  God  has  been 


THE  NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES.  77 

the  rebellion  of  Bacon  the  descendants  of  those  engaged  in 
it  met  again  at  Williamsburg,  the  new  capital  of  Virginia, 
and  proclaimed  a  new  rebellion,  that  which  led  to  inde 
pendence  from  Great  Britain. 

Later  Events. — Charles  II.  recalled  Berkeley,  and  repri 
manded  him  so  sharply  that  the  old  tyrant  is  said  to  have 
died  of  a  broken  heart  in  consequence.  Lord  Culpeper, 
one  of  those  to  whom  the  king  had  given  Virginia,  came  out 
as  governor  in  1680.  It  was  his  aim  to  get  as  much  money 
out  of  the  people  as  possible,  but  the  king  stopped  his 
measures  by  revoking  the  grant  and  recalling  the  governor. 
After  that  all  went  well  and  smoothly  in  Virginia,  and  the 
people  grew  steadily  in  numbers,  in  wealth,  and  in  comfort.1 

2.  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES. 
PLYMOUTH. 

New  England  Named. — The  London  Company,  as  we 
have  seen,  succeeded  in  founding  a  Colony  in  1607.  The 
Plymouth  Company  was  less  successful.  After  Gosnold's 
voyage  almost  every  year  some  English  ship  visited  the 
coast  of  North  Virginia,  as  it  was  called,  but  no  settlement 
was  made. 

inexpressibly  merciful  to  this  poor  province,11  wrote  Berkeley,  after 
one  of  his  hangings.  Charles  II.,  who  was  not  pleased  with  Berkeley's 
methods,  said  of  him,  "  That  old  fool  has  hung  more  men  in  that  naked 
Country  than  I  did  for  the  murder  of  my  father.1' 

1  Edmund  Spenser  in  1590,  in  dedicating  his  "  Faerie  Queene11  to 
Queen  Elizabeth,  spoke  of  her  as  queen  of  "  England,  France,  and 
Ireland,  and  of  Virginia."  The  coat  of  arms  of  the  London  Company, 
adopted  in  1619,  bore  the  motto  En  dat  Virginia  quintum,  indicating 
Virginia  as  a  fifth  kingdom  (Scotland  being  the  fourth).  The  same 
motto  was  on  the  seal  of  Virginia  adopted  about  1663.  From  these 
facts  Virginia  gained  its  famous  title  of  "  The  Old  Dominion." 


78  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

One  of  these  ships  brought  Captain  John  Smith,  five  years 
after  he  had  gone  home  from  Jamestown.  He  was  sent  by 
the  company,  and  explored  the  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to  the 
Penobscot,  making  a  map  of  it.  He  named  the  country 
New  England. 

The  First  Settlement. — Thus  time  went  on  until  1620, 
when  a  settlement  was  at  length  made.  It  was  a  remarkable 
one  in  many  ways,  and  due  to  remarkable  causes,  of  which 
it  is  necessary  to  speak.  It  was,  after  the  Huguenot  colony 
in  Florida,  the  first  known  in  history  formed  of  men  fleeing 
from  religious  persecution.  It  was  to  be  followed  by  similar 
colonies  in  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania. 

Puritans  and  Separatists. — King  Henry  VIII.,  about  a 
hundred  years  before,  had  broken  loose  from  the  Church  of 
Rome  and  formed  the  Church  of  England.  But  this  church 
was  so  full  of  ceremony  that  many  of  the  people  wished,  as 
they  said,  to  purify  it.  From  this  they  got  the  name  of 
Puritans.  There  were  others  who  went  further.  They 
did  not  approve  of  kings  and  bishops  as  the  heads  of  the 
church,  and  many  of  them  separated  from  the  Church  of 
England,  and  began  to  hold  services  in  private  houses. 
These  became  known  as  Separatists. 

The  Separatists  Seek  Holland. — This  went  on  for  thirty 
years.  The  Separatists  suffered  much  persecution,  and  in 
1608  a  congregation  of  them  fled  to  Holland  from  a  little 
town  named  Scrooby,  in  Nottinghamshire.  In  Holland  at 
that  time  there  was  more  religious  liberty  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  world,  and  the  fugitives  were  so  well  treated  that 
others  joined  them,  until  there  were  more  than  a  thousand 
in  all. 

These  fugitives  for  conscience'  sake  might  have  stayed  in 
Holland  but  for  the  fear  that  their  children  and  grandchildren 
would  lose  their  language  and  be  lost  in  the  Dutch  popula- 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES.          79 

tion.  They  wished  to  remain  English,  and  for  this  reason 
some  of  them  decided  to  go  to  America  and  found  there  a 
little  state  of  their  own. 

The  Mayflower  Pilgrimage. — They  looked  upon  them 
selves  as  "  pilgrims"  journeying  to  a  far  land,  and  ever 
since  have  been  known  as  the  Pilgrims.  They  wished  to 
settle  somewhere  near  the  Hudson,  not  caring  to  go  either 
to  the  English  settlement  of  Jamestown  or  to  the  Dutch  one 
on  Manhattan  Island.  They  easily  got  permission  from  the 
London  Company.  King  James  would  not  grant  them  a 
charter,  but  he  let  them  go,  and  some  London  merchants 
supplied  them  with  money,  which  they  were  to  pay  back  by 
seven  years'  hard  labor. 

The  Mayflower. — In  July,  1620,  this  little  band  of  pilgrim 
emigrants  left  Delftshaven  in  Holland  in  the  ship  Speedwell, 
and  sailed  to  Southampton,  England,  where  a  vessel  called 
the  Mayflower  awaited  them.  They  started  with  both  ves 
sels,  but  the  Speedwell  leaked  so  badly  that  they  had  to 
seek  the  port  of  Plymouth,  whence  the  Mayflower  finally 
sailed  alone.  On  September  16,  1620,  the  eventful  voyage 
began,  the  Pilgrims  numbering  one  hundred  and  two,  men, 
women,  and  children.  The  weather  was  bad,  and  they  did 
not  reach  the  coast  of  America  till  November. 

The  Pilgrims  in  Harbor. — Cape  Cod  was  first  sighted. 
They  tried  to  go  farther  south,  but  storms  prevented,  and 
on  November  21  they  dropped  anchor  in  a  harbor  at  the 
end  of  the  cape  (Provincetown  Harbor).  They  had  no 
authority  to  settle  in  New  England,  but  decided  to  do  so,  and 
sent  off  a  party  to  explore  the  coast.  Finally  they  selected 
a  locality  which  John  Smith  had  named  Plymouth  on  his 
map.  They  had  sailed  from  Plymouth  in  England,  and 
decided  to  retain  the  name,  as  very  happily  chosen. 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims. — The  Pilgrims  were  not  all 


80  THE   ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

men  of  peace.  As  the  Jamestown  colony  had  brought  out 
a  valorous  soldier,  Captain  John  Sm-ith,  so  the  Mayflower 
brought  Captain  Miles  Standish,  a  valiant  warrior,  who  was 
to  play  an  important  part  in  the  enterprise,  and  who  was 
one  of  the  exploring  party  which  selected  the  place  of 
landing.  On  the  shore  here  is  a  granite  boulder,  one  of 
many  relics  of  the  glacial  period  found  along  that  coast. 
They  are  said  to  have  landed  on  this  boulder,  and  it  has 
ever  since  been  revered  under  the  name  of  Plymouth  Rock, 
the  stepping-stone  by  which  civilization  entered  New  Eng 
land.  The  date  was  December  21,  1620.1 

The  Compact  of  Government. — A  few  days  afterward 
the  Mayflower  arrived,  and  the  Pilgrims  landed  at  the 
chosen  place.  They  had,  before  landing  on  Cape  Cod, 
made  a  compact  for  their  government  in  the  cabin  of  the 
ship,  in  which  they  determined  to  make  their  own  laws 
and  choose  their  own  governors.  John  Carver  was  the 
first  chosen.  Thus  began  the  liberty-loving  Commonwealth 
of  New  England. 

The  First  "Winter. — The  land  was  unoccupied.  A  few 
years  before  a  pestilence  had  swept  off  all  its  Indian  popu 
lation.  But  the  hardships  of  a  stormy  voyage,  poor  food, 
and  the  lack  of  proper  shelter  during  winter  on  that  bleak 
coast  had  their  natural  effect.  A  large  log  hut  was  built, 
but  it  became  a  hospital,  and  by  spring-time  half  the  colo 
nists  were  dead,  their  governor  among  the  number.  That 


1  The  landing  was  made  on  December  11,  according  to  the  almanac 
at  that  time.  But  since  that  time  the  mode  of  counting  time  has  been 
changed,  ten  days  having  been  added  to  make  the  calendar  agree  with 
the  sun.  To  change  Old  Style  to  New  Style,  as  they  are  called,  these 
ten  days  must  be  added.  This  changes  December  11  to  December  21. 
The  22d  is  usually  kept  as  "  Forefathers'  Day1'  in  New  England,  through 
a  mistake. 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES.  81 

the  Indians  might  not  know  of  their  losses,  the  graves  were 
levelled,  and  Indian-corn  was  planted  over  the  place  of 
burial.  In  April  the  Mayflower  returned  to  England,  but 
not  one  of  the  surviving  Pilgrims  went  in  her.  They  had 
come  to  stay,  and  would  not  let  their  misfortunes  drive 
them  away. 

William  Bradford  was  elected  governor,  and  so  well  did 
he  fill  the  office  that  every  year  until  his  death  in  1657  he 
was  re-elected,  except  for  five  years  in  which  he  declined 
to  serve.  The  other  chief  leaders  of  the  Pilgrims  were 
Elder  Brewster,  their  able  expounder  of  the  gospel,  and 
Miles  Standish,  their  stout-hearted  man  of  war. 

Dealings  with  the  Indians. — In  the  spring  of  1621  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  made  with  Massaso'it,  chief  of  the 
Wampano'ag  Indians.  He  remained  their  friend  while  he 
lived,  and  the  treaty  was  not  broken  till  1675.1  The  Nar- 
ragansett  Indians  were  more  warlike  in  inclination.  Their 
chief,  Canonicus,  sent  to  Plymouth  a  bundle  of  arrows  tied 
with  a  snake's  skin.  Governor  Bradford,  taking  this  to  be 
a  declaration  of  war,  filled  the  snake's  skin  with  powder  and 
bullets,  and  sent  it  back  to  the  hostile  chief.  The  savages 
looked  at  its  contents  with  alarm.  They  had  seen  the 
effect  of  the  white  men's  guns,  and  believed  that  they  had 
the  power  of  using  thunder  and  lightning.  Canonicus  con 
cluded  that  he  had  better  let  them  alone. 


1  One  day  in  early  spring  an  Indian  entered  the  village  with  the 
greeting,  "  Welcome,  Englishmen."  He  was  a  chief  named  Same/set, 
who  had  learned  some  English  words  from  the  fishermen  on  the  coast 
of  Maine.  He  afterward  brought  an  Indian  named  Squanto,  who  had 
been  carried  by  force  to  England  years  before,  and  then  brought  back. 
Squanto  stayed  with  the  Pilgrims,  and  taught  them  how  to  plant  their 
corn  in  the  Indian  fashion,  by  putting  one  or  two  fish  for  manure  into 
every  hill.  He  taught  them  other  useful  things  and  acted  as  their 
interpreter  with  the  surrounding  tribes. 

6 


82  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

Miles  Standish  dealt  with  hostile  savages  in  a  still  more 
decided  fashion.  He  discovered  a  plot  among  some  of  the 
savages  to  kill  all  the  whites.  Without  hesitation  he,  and 
some  of  the  stoutest  of  his  followers,  seized  the  plotters  and 
killed  them  with  their  own  knives.  These  measures  secured 
peace  in  Plymouth  for  years.1 

The  English  Company  Bought  Out. — The  Pilgrims  were 
still  deeply  in  debt  to  the  company  of  English  merchants 
who  had  advanced  the  money  for  their  enterprise.  In 
1626  they  bought  out  the  claims  of  these  merchants, 
though  to  do  so  they  had  to  borrow  a  large  sum  of  money 
in  London  at  an  interest  charge  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  per 
cent.  But  they  were  resolved  to  be  free  from  debt  at 
whatever  cost.  They  had  agreed  that  half  the  results  of 
their  labor  for  seven  years  should  go  to  this  company. 
Henceforth  they  were  free  from  this  eating  debt,  and  had  a 
fixed  and  definite  sum  to  pay.2 


1  Miles  Standish  was  not  a  member  of  the  Pilgrim  community,  but 
went  with  them  as  their  military  leader.     He  was  about  thirty-six 
years  of  age,  of  short  stature  but  strong  build,  and  of  hot  and  hasty 
temper.     His  wife  died  during  the  first  winter  at  Plymouth,  and  tra 
dition  tells  that  his  fancy  turned  to  a  pretty  maid  named  Priscilla 
Mullins,  to  whom  he  sent  his  friend  John  Alden  to  plead  his  cause. 
But  the  maiden  answered,  "Why  not  speak  for  yourself,  John?'1  and 
Miles  was  taught  the  folly  of  not  doing  his  own  courting.     In  addition 
to  being  the  military  head  of  the  colony,  he  was  for  years  its  treasurer. 
He  found  another  wife,  settled  Duxbury,  and  died  there  in  1656. 

2  A  party  of  some  thirty  settlers  started  a  colony  at  a  place  which 
they   called   Mount  Wollaston    (now   Quincy).     This   fell   under  the 
control  of  one  Morton,  who  named  it  Merry  Mount,  sold  powder  and 
shot  to  the  Indians,  gave  refuge  to  runaway  servants,  and  set  up  a  May 
pole,  around  which  high  carnival  was  held,  a  cask  of  wine  and  a  hogf 
head  of  ale  being  broached.     These  worldly  revels  were  highly  offen 
sive  to  the  staid  Pilgrims  of  Plymouth,  and  Miles  Standish  was  sent  to 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES.  83 

Growth  of  the  Colony. — After  the  formation  of  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  1630,  the  Plymouth  com 
munity  grew  faster.  At  that  date  there  were  only  three 
hundred  people  in  the  colony.  In  1640  it  had  a  popu 
lation  of  nearly  three  thousand.  In  1670  there  were  eight 
thousand,  divided  among  twenty  towns.  But  the  Massa 
chusetts  colony  grew  much  more  rapidly,  and  in  the  end 
absorbed  that  of  Plymouth. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY. 

The  Puritans  in  England. — The  Puritans  were  a  much 
larger  body  than  the  Separatists.  They  grew  in  time  so 
powerful  that  they  drove  the  king  from  his  throne  and 
established  a  Puritan  commonwealth  in  England.  But  in 
the  early  reign  of  Charles  I.  they  found  England  none  too 
comfortable  to  live  in,  and  small  parties  of  them,  following 
the  example  of  the  Pilgrims,  began  to  cross  the  ocean  in 
search  of  a  place  of  refuge  where  they  would  be  at  liberty 
to  worship  God  in  their  own  way. 

Massachusetts1  Bay. — These  emigrants  formed  little 
settlements  on  the  shores  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  John 
Endicott  came  from  Dorchester,  England,  in  1628,  and 
settled  with  his  followers  at  a  place  which  he  called  Salem,2 
a  Bible  name  meaning  "  Peace."  Soon  after  a  number  of 


put  an  end  to  them.     He  did  so  in  a  summary  fashion  by  seizing  Mor 
ton  and  shipping  him  to  England. 

1  Massachusetts  is  supposed  to  mean,  in  Indian  speech,  "  The  Great 
Hills  "     The  hills  alluded  to  were  probahly  those  of  Milton,  near 
Boston.     The  name,  at  first  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  Boston  harbor, 
in  time  was  applied  to  the  whole  State. 

2  A  small  settlement  was  formed  at  Cape  Ann  in  1623,  which  re 
moved  to  Naumkeag  (Salem)  in  1626. 


84  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

leading  Puritans  bought  from  the  Plymouth  Company  a 
large  tract  of  land,  stretching  from  three  miles  south  of  the 
Charles  River  to  three  miles  north  of  the  Merrimac,  and 
having  no  defined  limit  inland.  They  then  obtained  from 
Charles  I.  a  charter  incorporating  them  as  the  "  Company 
of  Massachusetts  Bay." 

The  Charter  Brought  to  America. — The  company  was 
privileged  to  elect  its  own  governor,  deputy  governor,  and 
council,  who  could  enact  laws  for  the  colony,  taking  care 
that  they  did  not  conflict  with  the  laws  of  England.  Fortu 
nately,  the  charter  did  not  say  where  the  company  should 
hold  its  meetings,  and  in  1629  it  was  decided  to  take  this 
important  paper  to  America.  The  king  did  not  object. 
The  Puritans  annoyed  him,  and  he  was  probably  glad  to 
get  rid  of  as  many  of  them  as  chose  to  emigrate  from 
England. 

Winthrop's  Colony. — In  1630  the  great  emigration  began. 
John  Winthrop,  of  Groton,  one  of  the  best  and  noblest  men 
of  his  time,  sailed  for  America  with 
eleven  ships  and  nearly  one  thousand 
persons.  Many  horses  and  cattle  were 
also  brought.  With  them  came  the 
charter.  Winthrop  had  been  chosen 
by  the  company  as  resident  governor. 

Boston      Settled.  —  From      Salem, 
where  they  first  landed,  the  Puritans 
soon  went  to  Charlestown,  and  then 
JOHN  WINTHROP.          to   a    hilly   peninsula    opposite.     The 
highest  hill  here  had  three  peaks,  from 
which  the  English  called  it  Tri-mountain,  or  Tremont.     The 
Indians  called  it  Shawmut.     The  name  was  soon  changed 
to  Boston,  after  the  old  English  city  from  which  many  of 
the  colonists  had  come. 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES.  85 

Growth  of  the  Colony. — The  colony  grew  with  encour 
aging  rapidity.1  By  1634  there  were  four  thousand  settlers, 
divided  into  about  twenty  villages.  By  1640  the  number 
had  increased  to  about  twenty  thousand.  From  the  first 
the  settlement  was  prosperous.  The  soil  was  poor,  and 
most  of  the  colonists  devoted  themselves  to  other  pursuits 
than  farming.  Very  many  of  them  engaged  in  the  fisheries. 
The  imported  cattle  soon  increased  largely,  pigs  rooted  in 
the  clearings,  wheat,  rye,  and  Indian-corn  were  cultivated, 
roads  and  bridges  were  built,  and  everything  went  on  ac 
tively.  Salt  fish  and  lumber  were  sent  to  England  and 
manufactured  goods  brought  back.  Ship-building  soon 
became  active,  and  in  time  an  important  commerce  with 
the  West  Indies  grew  up. 

Signs  of  Oppression. — The  rapid  growth  of  the  colony 
was  due  to  political  troubles  in  England.  Interference  with 
the  liberties  of  the  people  at  home  drove  thousands  abroad. 
But  Charles  I.  did  not  like  to  see  these  settlers  on  Massa 
chusetts  Bay  doing  so  much  as  they  pleased.  They  had 
too  much  liberty  for  his  liking,  and  seemed  to  be  building 
up  a  little  republic  cf  their  own.  In  1636  he  formed  a  plan 
to  put  a  stop  to  this,  deciding  to  take  from  the  colonists 
their  charter  and  to  divide  their  lands  among  certain  English 
noblemen. 

The  Settlers  Rebel. — When  the  settlers  heard  of  this 
plot  a  rebellion  on  a  small  scale  broke  out.  They  resolved 
to  defend  themselves  against  these  titled  robbers.  Forts 
were  built  about  Boston  harbor  and  mounted  with  cannon, 
each  village  began  to  train  its  militia,  and  a  beacon  was  set 

1  The  colony  at  first  suffered  severely,  two  hundred  of  its  members 
dying  the  first  year,  while  one  hundred  returned  to  England.  The 
others  dispersed  and  started  a  number  of  settlements  around  the  bay. 
which  afterward  became  towns. 


86  THE   ERA   OF   SETTLEMENT. 

up  on  the  highest  summit  in  the  town  to  warn  the  country 
people  in  case  of  need.  This  hill  is  still  known  as  Beacon 
Hill.  Boston  showed  thus  early  the  spirit  it  displayed  a 
century  and  a  half  later.  But  Charles  I.  now  had  war  on 
his  hands  at  home,  and  thought  no  more  of  those  turbulent 
colonists  abroad. 

Religious  Bigotry. — The  Puritans  had  come  abroad  that 
they  might  worship  God  in  their  own  way.  But  they  were 
as  intolerant  as  the  people  who  had  oppressed  them  at 
home.  They  decided  that  their  way  was  the  right  and  only 
way,  and  would  not  permit  any  one  to  worship  in  any  other 
way.  Members  of  the  Church  of  England  who  came  across 
were  sent  back  home.  The  government  was  Puritan,  like 
the  church.  If  any  persons  wanted  a  different  religion 
and  different  government  there  was  no  room  for  them  in 
Massachusetts.1 

Roger  Williams. — There  were  some  among  the  settlers 
with  broader  views  of  human  rights.  One  of  these  was 
Roger  Williams,  pastor  of  a  church  in  Salem.  He  was  one 
of  the  few  men  of  that  day  who  believed  in  religious  free 
dom,  "  soul  liberty,"  as  he  called  it.  No  man,  he  said,  ought 
to  be  forced  to  pay  taxes  to  support  a  minister.  Every  man 
had  the  right  to  worship  God  according  to  his  own  conscience. 
He  also  declared  that  the  land  in  America  belonged  to  the 
Indians,  not  to  the  king,  and  that  the  king  had  no  right  to 
give  it  away. 

"Williams  Forced  to  Ply. — These  bold  utterances  alarmed 
the  magistrates  and  clergy.  Such  a  man  as  this  was  like  a 

1  Such  an  idea  as  toleration,  or  liberty  of  worship,  was  then  unknown. 
Governor  Endicott  cut  out  with  his  sword  the  red  cross  from  the  English 
flag,  saying  that  it  represented  the  Catholic  religion.  Governor  Win- 
throp  and  the  leaders  of  the  church  were  quite  as  intolerant,  and  did 
not  propose  to  let  heresy  creep  into  their  midst. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES.  87 

firebrand  in  the  colony.  Williams  was  ordered  (in  1635)  to 
leave,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  arrest  him  and  send 
him  to  England.  He  escaped  into  the  wilderness  in  the 
depth  of  winter.  Here  he  was  sheltered  and  fed  by  the 
Indians,  whose  language  he  learned.  In  1636  he  obtained 
a  tract  of  land  from  the  Narragansett  tribe,  and  on  Narra- 
gansett  Bay  laid  the  foundations  of  a  town  which  he  called 
Providence,  saying  that  God's  mercy  had  provided  for  him. 

Anne  Hutchinson. — Williams  was  not  the  only  one  who 
ventured  to  disturb  the  Puritan  peace  of  mind.  Mrs.  Anne 
Hutchinson,  a  lady  of  great  ability  and  excellent  educa 
tion,  who  held  certain  decided  opinions  about  "  grace"  and 
"good  works,"  began  in  1636  a  series  of  weekly  lectures 
or  sermons  which  soon  gave  rise  to  a  bitter  controversy. 
So  great  became  her  influence  that  some  soldiers  who  had 
been  raised  to  fight  the  Indians  would  not  serve  because 
they  did  not  agree  with  the  doctrines  of  their  chaplain. 

Here  was  another  troubler  of  the  peace  "  worse  than 
Roger  Williams."  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  like  him,  was  ordered 
to  leave  the  colony.  She  obeyed,  and  with  those  who 
followed  her  bought  from  the  Indians  the  island  of  Aquid- 
neck,  which  has  since  been  known  as  Rhode  Island.1 

The  Quakers  Come. — New  trouble  soon  came  to  the 
Puritans.  A  sect  called  Quakers,  but  calling  themselves 
Friends,  had  arisen  in  England.  Their  doctrines  were  of 
the  strictest  morality,  yet  they  excited  strange  horror.  In 
1656  the  people  of  Massachusetts  held  a  day  of  fasting  and 
prayer  in  consequence  of  the  reports  about  the  doings  of  this 

1  For  this  island  they  paid  the  natives  forty  strings  of  white  wampum, 
twenty  hoes,  and  ten  coats.  Mrs.  Hutchinson  in  1642  removed  to 
Westchester  County,  New  York.  Here  the  next  year  her  house  was 
attacked  and  burned  by  the  Indians,  and  she  and  all  her  family  perished 
in  the  flames  or  by  the  tomahawks  of  the  foe. 


88  THE   ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

new  sect.  To  their  dismay,  only  two  weeks  afterward,  two 
Quaker  women  landed  in  Boston.  They  had  come  there 
not  for  shelter,  but  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  their  faith. 

The  authorities  were  not  to  be  taken  by  storm  in  this 
fashion.  The  women  were  hastily  put  into  jail,  the  books 
they  had  brought  were  burned,  the  windows  of  their  cell 
were  boarded  up  that  they  might  not  speak  to  curious 
listeners,  and  they  were  sent  back  as  soon  as  possible  to 
England. 

Persecution  of  the  Quakers. — The  Quakers  were  not  so 
easily  to  be  disposed  of.  Others  came  and  insisted  on 
preaching.  These  were  banished  on  penalty  of  death,  and 
in  1659  two  of  them,  who  had  returned,  wTere  hanged  on 
Boston  Common.  The  next  year  another  was  hanged,  and 
another  in  1661.1 

Opposition  to  the  Hangings. — These  severe  measures 
aroused  much  opposition.  Most  of  the  people  of  Boston 
objected  to  the  executions,  and  the  magistrates,  who  feared 
an  insurrection,  did  not  dare  to  execute  the  last  who 
were  condemned.  Quakers  afterward  were  now  and  then 
whipped  or  imprisoned,  but  there  were  no  more  hang 
ings.  Charles  II.  issued  an  order  in  1661  forbidding  bodily 
punishment  of  Quakers,  saying  that  the  government  had 
gone  beyond  its  authority. 

1  The  Quakers  gave  great  provocation.  Some  of  them  were  almost 
insane  with  religious  zeal.  Some  smeared  their  faces  with  black  paint 
and  ran  howling  through  the  streets.  Others  burst  into  Puritan  meet 
ings  on  Sunday  dressed  in  sackcloth  and  their  heads  covered  with 
ashes,  called  the  ministers  deceivers  and  hypocrites,  and  bade  them  to 
come  down  from  their  pulpits.  Others  committed  still  worse  excesses. 

During  the  persecution  the  Quakers  were  punished  with  fines,  im 
prisonment,  flogging,  branding  with  the  letter  H  (heretic),  boring 
through  the  tongue  with  a  hot  iron,  whipping  at  "  the  cart's  tail"  from 
village  to  village,  and  death,  but  nothing  could  overcome  their  zeal. 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES.  89 

Indian  Hostility. — Hitherto  Massachusetts  had  suffered 
little  from  the  Indians.  As  a  rule,  the  English  had  treated 
them  well  and  paid  for  their  lands.1  But  the  settlers  took 
part  in  the  wars  between  the  tribes,  and  in  this  way  they 
made  enemies  of  the  Narragansetts.  The  Wampanoags  and 
the  Nipmucks,  their  neighbors,  also  became  hostile.  In 
1675  a  terrible  outbreak  took  place. 

Massasoit,  chief  of  the  Wampanoags,  kept  faithfully  till 
his  death  his  treaty  of  peace  with  the  English.  His  son 
Philip — King  Philip,  as  he  came  to  be  called — was  driven 
into  hostility  by  ill  treatment.  He  believed  that  the  white 
men  must  be  exterminated  or  the  red  men  would  be,  and 
under  his  influence  his  and  the  neighboring  tribes  broke 
into  war. 

King  Philip's  War. — This  outbreak  began  in  June,  1675, 
in  a  sudden  attack  of  the  Wampanoags  on  some  villages  of 
Plymouth  colony,  many  of  whose  people  were  murdered. 
For  more  than  a  year  the  war  continued,  with  desperate 
fighting  and  terrible  excesses.  After  the  Wampanoags  were 
put  down,  Philip  led  the  Nipmucks  to  deeds  of  blood,  and 
the  war  extended  from  the  Connecticut  River  to  the  vicinity 
of  Boston. 

Results  of  the  War. — The  Narragansetts,  as  they  were 
about  to  break  out,  were  attacked  in  their  palisaded  strong 
hold  and  terribly  punished,  more  than  a  thousand  of  them 
being  slaughtered.  Those  who  were  left  were  sold  as  slaves 
in  the  West  Indies.  In  the  summer  of  1676  Philip  was 
killed  and  the  war  ended.  Twelve  towns  had  been  de- 

1  John  Eliot,  the  missionary,  translated  the  Bible  into  the  Indian 
language,  and  converted  many  by  his  preaching.  There  were  four 
thousand  Christian  Indians  in  New  England  in  1674.  Schools  were 
introduced  among  them,  and  many  were  taught  to  read  and  write.  But 
in  spite  of  all  this  many  of  the  Indians  hated  and  feared  the  whites. 


90  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

stroyed  and  more  than  forty  others  had  been  scenes  of 
fire  and  bloodshed.  A  thousand  and  more  men  had  been 
killed  and  a  great  many  women  and  children  had  perished. 
The  Salem  Witchcraft. — In  1692  a  new  horror  came 
upon  the  people  of  Massachusetts.  For  centuries  before 
there  had  been  a  strong  belief  in  witchcraft  in  Europe,  and 
thousands  of  poor  wretches  had  been  put  to  death  in  con 
sequence.  It  was  now  claimed  that  witchcraft  had  broken 
out  in  Salem,  and  great  fear  and  excitement  prevailed. 
Some  children  went  into  fits,  acted  oddly,  and  accused 
several  persons  of  having  bewitched  them.  This  gave  rise 
to  a  panic  of  fear,  which  became  so  great  that  the  people 
lost  their  wits,  and  before  it  ended  nineteen  persons  had 
been  hanged  as  witches,  and  one  old  man  pressed  to  death 
under  heavy  weights  because  he  refused  to  plead  either 
u  guilty"  or  "  not  guilty."  After  about  a  year  of  this  mad 
ness  the  lost  good  sense  of  the  people  returned,  and  prose 
cutions  for  witchcraft  ceased.  They  continued  in  Europe 
for  many  years  afterward.  Five  persons  were  put  to  death 
as  witches  in  England  in  1722. 


MAINE  AND  NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 

The  Northeastern  District. — The  history  of  the  district 
lying  northeast  of  Massachusetts,  now  forming  the  two 
States  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  was  in  colonial  times 
closely  related  to  that  of  the  Massachusetts  colony.  Here 
Sir  George  Popham,  as  already  stated,  tried  to  form  a  col 
ony  in  1607.  The  first  permanent  settlement  was  made, 
probably  in  1626,  at  Pemaquid  Point,  between  the  Ken- 
nebec  and  Penobscot  Rivers. 

Gorges  and  Mason. — Shortly  after  the  founding  of 
Plymouth  two  Englishmen,  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  (gor'jtz) 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES. 


91 


and  Captain  John  Mason,  obtained  a  grant  of  the  region 
lying  between  the  Merrimac  and  Kennebec  Rivers.  After 
establishing  some  fishing  villages  they  divided  their  claim, 
Mason  taking  the  country 
west  of  the  Piscataqua 
River,  which  he  named 
New  Hampshire,  after 
Hampshire,  his  home  in 


i^8&4^7'-^:''^;^JMrtleId^^^  3    %, 

«r£  Vx 


NEW  ENGLAND  AND  NEW  NETHERLAND. 

England.  Gorges  took  the  territory  east  of  this  river,  and 
named  it  Maine  (perhaps  as  the  "  main"  land,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  coast  islands). 

Settlements  in  Maine. — A  few  settlements  in  addition  to 
Pemaquid  were  made  on  the  coast  of  Maine, — Saco  and 
Biddeford  in  1630,  and  Portland  in  1632.  But  Gorges  did 
not  concern  himself  about  the  country,  and  his  heirs  sold 


92  THE   ERA   OF   SETTLEMENT. 

it  to  Massachusetts  in  1652.     It  remained  a  part  of  Massa 
chusetts  until  1820,  when  it  became  a  separate  State. 

New  Hampshire. — The  first  settlement  in  New  Hamp 
shire  was  a  fishing  village  at  Little  Harbor,  near  Ports 
mouth,  in  1623.  A  settlement  was  made  at  Dover  about 
the  same  time.  Exeter  was  settled  by  followers  of  Mrs. 
Hutchinson  in  1638,  and  Hampton  by  other  people  from 
Massachusetts.  In  1641  these  four  towns  were  added  to 
Massachusetts,  but  in  1679  Charles  II.  separated  them,  and 
made  of  them,  with  the  country  in  the  interior,  the  royal 
province  of  New  Hampshire. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Roger  Williams. — We  have  already  stated  that  Roger 
Williams,  when  banished  from  Massachusetts,  made  his 
way  southward  through  the  wilderness  to  what  is  now 
Rhode  Island.  He  was  joined  by  five  friends,  who  in  1636 
built  themselves  homes  at  the  locality  called  by  him  Provi 
dence.  Here,  in  1639,  Williams  founded  the  first  Baptist 
church  in  America. 

Towns  Pounded. — In  1638,  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  also  ban 
ished  for  her  religious  opinions,  founded  with  her  friends 
the  town  of  Portsmouth,  on  an  island  which  soon  gained  the 
name  of  Rhode  Island,  afterward  the  name  of  the. whole 
colony.  William  Coddington  and  others  soon  afterward 
founded  the  town  of  Newport,  and  in  1643,  Samuel  Gorton, 
a  man  of  such  odd  ideas  that  no  settlement  would  have 
him,  started  the  town  of  Warwick. 

The  Rhode  Island  Charter. — Roger  Williams  made  it 
known  that  there  would  be  no  religious  persecution  in 
Providenca,  and  persons  from  all  quarters  made  their  way 
to  .his  settlement.  He  shared  with  them  the  lands  he  had 
obtained  from  the  Indians,  reserving  only  two  small  fields 


THE  NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES.  93 

for  himself.  In.-  1644  he  went  to  England  and  obtained 
from  the  king  a  charter  which  united  the  various  settle 
ments  into  one  province,  entitled  "The  Incorporation  of 
Providence  Plantations  in  the  Narragansett  Bay  of  New 
England." 

The  New  Charter. — A  new  charter  was  obtained  from 
Charles  II.  in  1663,  in  which  the  name  "  Rhode  Island  and 
Providence  Plantations"  is  used.  This  charter  was  so 
liberal  in  its  provisions,  and  gave  such  independent  powers 
of  legislation  and  suffrage,  that  no  new  form  of  government 
was  asked  for  when  the  colonies  became  free,  and  it  con 
tinued  in  force  until  1843.  It  was  then  abrogated  on 
account  of  its  property  qualification  for  suffrage.1 

Religious  Liberty  Decreed. — On  the  return  of  Williams 
a  new  set  of  laws  was  adopted  guaranteeing  freedom  of 
faith  to  all.  It  was  "  the  first  legal  declaration  of  liberty 
of  conscience  ever  adopted  in  Europe  or  America."  The 
new  laws  protected  "  Papists,  Protestants,  Jews,  or  Turks" 
in  their  religious  faith,  a  freedom  which  drew  to  the  settle 
ment  not  only  many  who  wished  for  liberty,  but  some  who 
wished  for  license.  As  a  result  Rhode  Island  had  trouble 
from  those  who  took  advantage  of  its  liberality. 

The  Charter  Lost  and  Regained. — Andros,  the  tyran 
nical  governor  of  New  England,  of  whom  we  shall  speak 
in  the  next  section,  obtained  possession  of  the  charter  of 
Rhode  Island,  but  after  his  expulsion  the  colony  regained 
the  rights  given  it  by  Charles  II.  and  kept  them  until  it 
obtained  fuller  rights  as  a  result  of  the  Revolution.2 


1  Only  the  eldest  sons  of  voters  were  given  free  suffrage.    All  others 
had  to  possess  a  certain  amount  of  property.     As  a  result  two-thirds 
of  the  people  were  disfranchised. 

2  Rhode   Island,  being  formed  of  two  colonies,  had  two  colonial 
capitals,  Providence  and  Newport.     It  retains  these  two  capitals  to 


94  THE   ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

CONNECTICUT. 

The  Valley  of  the  Connecticut. — The  Connecticut 
(Indian  for  "  Long  River")  attracted  by  the  beauty  and 
fertility  of  its  valley  both  the  Dutch  of  New  Amsterdam 
and  the  English  of  Plymouth.  The  Dutch,  who  had  formed 
the  colony  which  afterward  became  New  York,  claimed 
this  territory,  established  trading-posts  along  the  river,  and 
built  a  fort  in  1633  where  Hartford  now  stands.1  In  the 
same  summer  a  small  ship  from  Plymouth  came  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  The  Dutch  ordered  the  mariners  to 
turn  back  or  they  would  fire  on  them  ;  but  the  Pilgrims 
sailed  on  and  the  Dutch  did  not  fire.  The  Pilgrims- built  a 
house  where  Windsor  now  stands  and  began  to  trade  with 
the  Indians. 

Settlements. — It  was  the  fur-trade  which  brought  these 
settlers.  Both  parties  wished  a  monopoly  of  this  rich 
traffic,  but  the  English  succeeded  in  obtaining  it.  In  1635 
immigration  became  active.  Settlers  from  near  Boston 
founded  the  towns  of  Wethersfield  and  Windsor.  Hartford 
was  also  founded  after  the  Dutch  had  left. 

The  occasion  of  the  Dutch  leaving  their  fort  was  the  fol 
lowing.  The  Earl  of  Warwick  had  obtained  a  grant  of  the 
Connecticut  Valley.  This  he  had  assigned  to  Lord  Say- 
and-Seal,  Lord  Brooke,  and  others.  In  1635  these  proprie- 

this  day,  being  the  only  State  with  more  than  one  capital.  This  is  an 
interesting  fact  in  view  of  the  accompanying  circumstance  that  Rhode 
Island  is  the  smallest  of  the  States.  Connecticut,  the  next  in  size 
with  the  exception  of  Delaware,  had  two  capitals  till  1873. 

1  The  Connecticut  River  was  discovered  by  Adrian  Rlock,  a  Dutch 
captain,  in  1614.  Dutch  traders  soon  sought  its  banks.  They  ill- 
treated  the  Indians  and  were  obliged  to  build  a  fort  for  their  protec 
tion,  on  which  they  mounted  two  cannon.  Future  colonists  suffered 
from  the  savages  on  account  of  this  ill-treatment. 


THE  NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES.  95 

tors  sent  out  John  Winthrop,  son  of  Governor  Winthrop, 
of  Massachusetts,  to  form  a  settlement.  He  built  a  fort  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  shut  out  the  Dutch  from 
their  post  at  Hartford  and  obliged  them  to  abandon  it. 
This  fort  he  called  Saybrooke,  after  the  names  of  his  two 
patrons. 

Settlers  Come  from  Massachusetts. — The  next  year 
(1636)  a  party  of  more  than  one  hundred  started  from 
Newtown  (now  Cambridge),  Massachusetts,  for  what  was 
then  called  "  The  West."  They  travelled  on  foot  through 
the  wilderness,  driving  one  hundred  and  sixty  head  of 
cattle  and  a  drove  of  hogs.  They  were  led  by  their  pastor, 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Hooker,  a  Puritan  leader  who  believed 
in  government  by  the  whole  people,  in  opposition  to 
Governor  Winthrop,  who  believed  in  the  government  of 
the  few.  Two  weeks  through  the  woods,  without  roads  or 
bridges,  brought  them  to  Hartford,1  where  they  joined  the 
small  settlement  already  made. 

The  Pequot  War. — The  settlements  named  had  been 
hardly  formed  before  war  with  the  Indians  broke  out. 
The  Pequots  were  the  leading  tribe  of  that  region,  and 
were  fiercely  hostile  to  the  whites,  a  number  of  whom  they 
murdered.  They  tried  to  get  the  Narragansetts  to  join 
them  in  a  general  war  against  the  English,  but  Roger 
Williams  sought  the  chiefs  of  the  Narragansetts  and  per 
suaded  them  to  remain  at  home.  The  Pequots,  there 
fore,  began  their  work  alone,  selecting  the  exposed  and 
weak  settlements  on  the  Connecticut  for  their  murderous 
raids. 

No  general  attack  was  made,  but  the  savages  skulked 

1  It  was  called  Newtown  till  1637.  when  the  name  Hartford  was 
adopted,  after  Hertford,  in  England. 


96  THE   ERA   OF   SETTLEMENT. 

round  the  settlements,  waylaying  and  slaughtering  incau 
tious  settlers.  Some  of  their  captives  were  burnt  alive  and 
otherwise  tortured.  This  continued  until  thirty  settlers 
had  been  killed. 

The  Indian  Stronghold  Attacked. — In  the  spring  of  1637 
the  English  determined  to  put  a  stop  to  these  slaughters. 
Captain  Mason,  at  the  head  of  seventy  men,  set  out  toward 
the  Pequot  stronghold.  He  was  joined  by  Captain  Under 
bill  with  twenty  men  from  Massachusetts,  and  by  seventy 
Mohegan  warriors,  hereditary  foes  of  the  Pequots.  The 
greater  part  of  the  latter  we-re  gathered  in  their  fort  on  the 
Mystic  River,  a  circular  stockade  to  which  they  trusted  for 
safety. 

It  proved  a  weak  defence.  The  English  approached  it 
an  hour  before  dawn  (June  5,  1637).  The  Indians  were 
asleep.  A  barking  dog  awaked  them,  and  the  cry  of 
"Owanux!  Owanux!"  (Englishmen)  came  from  the  sen 
tinel.  It  came  too  late.  The  tw^o  entrances  to  the  strong 
hold  were  already  in  the  hands  of  the  foe.  Mason,  seizing 
a  firebrand,  hurled  it  among  the  wigwams.  The  dry  mate 
rial  caught  fire,  and  in  a  few  minutes  flames  were  sweeping 
through  the  encampment.  So  rapid  was  the  progress  of 
the  fire  that  the  English  themselves  were  in  serious  peril. 
The  few  Indians  who  escaped  were  shot  down,  only  five 
escaping.  More  than  four  hundred  perished  in  the  fort. 
The  remainder  of  the  tribe  fled  in  terror  for  the  Hudson 
River,  but  were  pursued  and  nearly  all  slain.  Almost  in  a 
day  the  Pequot  tribe,  deemed  invincible  by  their  fellow- 
Indians,  was  destroyed.  It  was  no  doubt  largely  due  to 
this  example  that  there  was  no  other  Indian  outbreak  until 
King  Philip's  war,  nearly  forty  years  afterward. 

New  Haven  Colony. — During  these  events  a  large  com 
pany  of  Puritan  immigrants  arrived  from  England,  led  by 


THE  NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES.  97 

their  pastor,  Rev.  John  Davenport.  Many  of  them  were 
wealthy,  and  they  wished  to  form  a  little  state  of  their 
own,  with  no  law  except  what  could  be  found  in  the  Bible.1 
In  the  spring  of  1638  they  reached  a  pleasant  harbor  on 
Long  Island  Sound,  where  they  founded  the  town  of  New 
Haven.  Milford,  Guilford,  and  Stamford  were  afterward 
founded,  and  these  towns  combined  to  form  what  became 
known  as  the  New  Haven  colony.  In  1644  the  Saybrook 
settlement  joined  the  Connecticut  to  form  the  Connecticut 
colony,  composed  of  Hartford  and  the  other  towns  on  the 
Connecticut  River. 

Systems  of  Government. — While  the  New  Haven  colony 
formed  its  law  on  the  Bible,  and,  like  Massachusetts,  per 
mitted  only  church  members  to  vote,  the  Connecticut  col 
ony,  adopting  the  liberal  views  of  Thomas  Hooker,  gave  all 
freemen  the  right  to  vote.  This  principle  was  embodied  in 
1639  in  a  written  constitution,  the  first  known  in  history 
formed  by  the  people  for  their  own  government.  This 
instrument  made  no  mention  of  the  English  king  or 
company.  It  was  in  effect  the  constitution  of  a  separate 
republic. 

The  Charter  of  Connecticut. — In  1662,  Charles  II.  granted 
a  charter  to  Connecticut  which  guaranteed  all  the  rights 
claimed  in  the  constitution  adopted  by  the  colonists.  It 
was  the  most  favorable  charter  granted  to  any  colony,  and 
gave  Connecticut  independent  powers  of  government,  the 
king  reserving  no  rights  of  appointment  or  legislation.  By 
this  charter  the  territory  of  the  colony  was  extended  west 
ward  to  the  Pacific.  It  was  so  liberal  in  its  provisions  that 
it  continued  in  force  until  1818. 


1  They  would  not  accept  trial  by  jury,  because  the  laws  of  Moses 
did  not  have  it. 

7 


98  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

THE  CONFEDERATED  COLONIES, 

A  Defensive  Union. — In  1643  the  colonies  of  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  New  Haven  formed  a  con 
federation  for  defence  against  the  Dutch  and  Indians,  under 
the  name  of  "The  United  Colonies  of  New  England." 
Rhode  Island  was  not  admitted,  there  being  much  ill  feeling 
against  the  people  of  that  colony,  whose  doctrine  of  religious 
liberty  did  not  please  the  Puritans. 

In  this  same  year  the  rebellion  against  Charles  I.  broke 
out  in  England,  and  the  emigration  of  the  Puritans  ceased, 
they  being  occupied  at  home  in  fighting  with  the  king.  At 
that  time  New  England  had  a  population  of  about  twenty- 
six  thousand,  of  whom  five  thousand  had  been  born  there. 

The  King's  Purpose. — In  1636,  Charles  L,  angry  at  the 
way  the  people  of  Massachusetts  were  governing  themselves, 
decided,  as  we  have  said  (see  page  85),  to  deprive  them  of 
their  charter  and  rob  them  of  their  lands.  War  at  home 
put  an  end  to  this  scheme,  and  the  people  of  New  England 
were  let  alone  during  the  years  the  king  was  fighting  for  his 
throne.  He  was  defeated  and  beheaded,  and  Cromwell,  the 
Puritan  leader,  became  ruler  in  England.  After  his  death 
Charles  II.  became  king,  and  then  fresh  troubles  began. 

Charter  Difficulties. — The  New  Haven  colony  was  sup 
pressed  by  order  of  the  new  king l  and  annexed  to  Con- 

1  Charles  II.  was  very  angry  with  the  colony  at  New  Haven  for 
sheltering  two  of  the  judges  who  had  sentenced  to  death  his  father, 
Charles  I.  Two  of  these,  Goffe  and  Whalley,  who  were  generals  in 
Cromwell's  army,  sought  shelter  in  America  when  Charles  II.  came  to 
the  throne.  These,  known  as  regicides  (king-killers),  were  diligently 
hunted,  and  took  refuge  in  New  Haven,  where  they  were  aided  by  the 
people.  On  one  occasion  they  hid  under  a  bridge,  while  their  pursuers 
rode  fiercely  overhead  in  pursuit.  For  a  long  time  they  remained 
hidden  in  a  cave.  They  were  never  caught,  and  spent  the  rest  of  their 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES.  99 

necticut.1  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  were  given  new 
and  very  liberal  charters.  Massachusetts  again  came  near 
losing  her  charter,  because  she  refused  to  let  the  Church  of 
England  be  established  in  her  territory.  But  the  king  had 
enough  to  do  at  home,  and  did  not  take  up  his  quarrel  with 
Massachusetts  till  1679,  when  he  made  a  royal  province  of 
New  Hampshire,  and  bade  Massachusetts  not  to  interfere 
with  Maine,  which  she  had  purchased  from  the  heirs  of 
Gorges.  The  quarrel  went  on  until  1684,  when  the  king, 
who  had  grown  very  angry  with  the  Massachusetts  Puritans, 
pronounced  their  charter  of  no  effect. 

This  destroyed  the  government  which  had  existed  since 
1629.  Before  he  could  arrange  a  new  one  the  king  died, 
and  his  brother,  Jarnes  II.,  came  to  the  throne.  At  once  a 
period  of  tyranny  began  which  threatened  the  colonies  with 
the  loss  of  their  cherished  liberty. 

The  Andros  Tyranny. — James  II.  sent  over  Sir  Edmund 
Andros,  one  of  his  favorites,  to  govern  New  York  and  New 
England.  He  was  given  absolute  powers,  and  ordered  to 
seize  the  charters  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island.  He 
sent  orders  for  the  delivery  of  the  charters,  but  failed  to 
receive  that  of  Connecticut.  Then,  in  1687,  he  marched 
from  Boston  to  Hartford,  attended  by  a  strong  body-guard, 


lives  in  safety.  The  story  is  told  that  during  King  Philip's  war,  when 
the  Indians  made  an  attack  on  Hadley,  Massachusetts,  an  old  man 
with  long  white  beard  suddenly  appeared  and  led  the  villagers  against 
them,  driving  them  back  in  defeat.  It  was  the  regicide,  General  Goffe, 
who  had  been  concealed  in  the  house  of  their  minister.  The  people 
looked  on  him  as  an  angel  come  to  their  rescue.  This  is  the  tradition  ; 
it  is  not  sure  that  it  ever  happened. 

1  The  capitals  of  the  two  colonies,  Hartford  and  New  Haven,  were 
retained  as  capitals  of  Connecticut  until  1873,  since  which  date  Hart 
ford  has  been  the  sole  capital. 


100 


THE   ERA   OF   SETTLEMENT. 


and   imperiously  demanded  that  the   charter   should  be 

given  into  his  hands. 

The   Charter   Disappears. — Tradition  tells  a   romantic 

story  of  what  took  place.    While  a  long  debate  was  going 

on  in  the  assembly  cham 
ber,  with  the  charter 
lying  on  the  table  and 
Governor  Andros  in  the 
chair  of  state  at  its 
head,  the  lights  in  the 
room  were  suddenly  put 
out  and  the  party  left 
in  complete  darkness. 
They  were  lighted  again 
as  quickly  as  possible, 
but  the  charter  was  gone. 
It  had  been  seized,  it  is 
said,  by  Captain  Wads- 
worth,  who  left  the  hall 
by  door  or  window,  and 
hid  it  in  the  hollow  of 
an  old  oak-tree,  which 

PLACING  THE  CHAKTEB  IN  THE  OAK.  afterward     WRS     faniOUS 

as  the  "  Charter  Oak.1' 

Andros,  furious  at  this,  pronounced  the  charter  govern 
ment  at  an  end,  and  wrote  the  word  "  Finis"  at  the  close 
of  the  minutes  of  the  assembly's  last  meeting. 

The  Old  Governments  Restored. — It  was  not  long  after 
ward  when  James  II.  was  driven  from  his  throne  and  Wil 
liam  III.  became  King  of  England.  As  soon  as  this  news 
reached  Boston,  in  April,  1689,  the  people  rose  in  rebel 
lion,  threw  Andros  into  prison,  and  restored  their  old  gov 
ernment.  In  Hartford  the  hidden  charter  was  brought 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES.  101 

out  again,  the  assembly  met,  and  the  "  Finis1'  was  erased 
from  their  minute-book.  As  for  Rhode  Island,  its  govern 
ment  had  not  been  disturbed. 

King  William's  System. — In  1692,  King  William  took 
New  England  in  hand.  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island 
were  allowed  to  keep  their  charters  and  elect  their  gov 
ernors.  Massachusetts  retained  her  old  system  of  govern 
ment,  but  the  king  ordained  that  others  besides  Puritans 
might  preach,  vote,  and  hold  office,  and  that  the  governors 
should  be  appointed  by  the  crown.1 

A  New  Charter. — Massachusetts  received  a  new  charter, 
uniting  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Maine,  and 
Nova  Scotia, — which  was  then  in  English  hands.  But  this 
charter  so  restricted  the  power  of  the  people  that  the  colony 
was  really  a  royal  one.  From  that  time  on  trouble  ruled. 
The  people  were  never  content  with  their  royal  governors. 
Quarrels  began  between  governor  and  legislature,  and  the 
spirit  of  opposition  continued  until  1775,  when  the  reign  of 
royalty  in  America  came  to  an  end. 

1  An  interesting  story  is  told  concerning  one  royal  governor.  In 
1693,  Governor  Fletcher,  of  New  York,  was  given  command  of  the 
militia  of  Connecticut.  Fletcher  made  his  way  from  New  York  to 
Hartford,  summoned  the  militia,  and  began  to  read  to  them  his  royal 
commission.  In  a  moment  Captain  Wads  worth,  of  charter  oak  fame, 
ordered  the  drums  to  be  beaten.  Fletcher  commanded  silence,  and 
began  to  read  again.  "  Drum  !"  cried  Wadsworth,  and  the  noise  was 
renewed.  "Silence!"  shouted  Fletcher,  and  it  ceased.  "Drum,  I 
say  !"  cried  the  captain,  and,  turning  to  Fletcher,  he  said,  meaningly, 
"  If  I  am  interrupted  again  I  will  make  the  sun  shine  through  you  in  a 
minute."  The  governor  left  the  remainder  of  the  commission  unread, 
and  made  his  way  in  defeat  back  to  New  York. 


102  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

3.  NEW   YORK   AND   NEW   JERSEY. 

NEW   NETHERLAND. 

Dutch  Trading-Posts. — The  discovery  of  Hudson  River 
by  Henry  Hudson  was  soon  followed  up  by  the  enterprising 
people  of  Holland,  in  whose  service  he  had  sailed.  It  had 
been  found  that  the  Indians  possessed  valuable  furs,  which 
they  would  be  glad  to  exchange  for  articles  which  the  Dutch 
made  in  abundance.  So  it  was  not  long  before  that  active 
commercial  people  sent  vessels  across  the  ocean  to  trade  for 
furs.  One  came  in  1610  arid  others  the  next  year,  and 
about  1614  a  trading-post,  composed  of  a  few  huts,  was 
built  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  On  this  island, 
which  the  Indians  called  Manhattan,  afterward  arose  the 
city  of  New  York.  Trading-stations  were  built  up  the 
river  also,  and  where  Albany  now  stands  a  wooden 
u  strong  house,"  called  Fort  Nassau,  was  built.  The  whole 
country  was  named  New  Netherland,  after  Netherland, 
the  official  title  of  Holland. 

Settlements  Made. — A  colony  was  sent  out  in  1623,  and 
small  settlements  were  made  on  the  Hudson,  which  the 
Dutch  called  the  North  River,  and  on  the  Delaware,  which 
they  called  the  South  River.  A  settlement  was  also  made 
on  the  Connecticut.  Most  of  the  colonists,  however,  went 
to  Albany,  where  they  built  Fort  Orange,  to  replace  the  old 
Fort  Nassau.  A  new  Fort  Nassau  was  built  on  the  Dela 
ware,  just  below  where  Camden  iiow  stands. 

New  Amsterdam. — Peter  Minuit  was  sent  out  as  gov 
ernor  in  1626  to  take  charge  of  the  settlements,  which  were 
growing  prosperous  from  their  rich  fur-trade  with  the  In 
dians.  He  took  the  wise  course  of  buying  Manhattan  Island 
from  the  original  owners.  It  came  very  cheap,  being  paid 


NEW   YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY.  103 

for  with  beads,  buttons,  and  cloth,  worth  in  all  about  twenty- 
four  dollars.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  state  how  many 
millions  it  is  worth  now.  He  built  there  a  fort,  a  ware 
house,  and  a  cluster  of  log  huts,  and  made  it  his  seat  of 
government.  It  was  at  first  called  Manhattan,  its  Indian 
title,  but  was  afterward  named  New  Amsterdam. 

The  Fur-Trade. — The  great  interest  in  New  Netherland 
was  the  fur-trade.  Farming  was  neglected.  It  was  a  much 
easier  road  to  riches  to  buy  valuable  furs  with  cheap  trinkets, 
or  such  useful  tools  to  the  Indians  as  knives  and  hatchets. 
The  Dutch  were  wise  enough  to  take  no  land  from  the  sav 
ages  without  paying  for  it,  and  to  make  a  treaty  with  the 
Iroquois,  the  powerful  confederacy  whose  tribes  held  most 
of  the  country  west  of  the  Hudson.  This  treaty  was  sacredly 
kept  by  the  Indians,  and  greatly  helped  to  give  prosperity 
to  the  new  settlements. 

Great  Estates. — The  New  Netherland  Company  was  or 
ganized  in  1614.  It  was  eager  to  bring  settlers  into  the 
country,  and  offered  to  any  member  who  would  bring  or 
send  out  fifty  settlers  the  valuable  prize  of  an  estate  with  a 
front  of  sixteen  miles  on  the  Hudson  or  other  river.  Nothing 
was  said  about  how  far  it  might  run  back.  If  estates  were 
taken  on  both  sides  of  the  river  they  were  to  be  eight  miles 
wide.  But  it  was  wisely  required  that  the  new  owners 
should  pay  the  Indians  for  the  land  taken. 

The  Patroons. — These  proprietors  were  called  "  pa- 
troons."  Their  estates  were  like  little  kingdoms.  They 
held  courts  of  their  own,  and  lived  like  the  barons  of 
Europe  in  the  olden  times.  One  of  the  patroons,  named 
Van  Rensselaer  (r&n'atl-l&r),  had  an  estate  near  Albany  ex 
tending  twenty-four  miles  on  each  bank  of  the  Hudson  and 
twice  that  distance  back.  It  was  added  to  till  it  became 
much  larger  than  the  whole  colony  of  Rhode  Island.  Over 


104  THE   ERA  OF   SETTLEMENT. 

these  great  estates,  inhabited  by  emigrants  and  slaves,  the 
patroons  reigned  sole  lords,  their  will  being  the  only  law. 

An  Indian  Massacre. — Some  of  the  Algonquin  Indians 
near  New  Amsterdam  were  badly  treated  by  one  of  the 
Dutch  governors,  and  in  consequence  broke  out  in  1643  in 
a  sudden  insurrection.  Many  of  the  settlers  were  killed,  and 
a  war  was  started  which  lasted  till  1645,  and  nearly  ruined 
the  colony.  Fortunately  for  the  Dutch.;  the  Iroquois  con 
tinued  friendly.  These  shrewd  savages  had  learned  enough 
now  to  trade  furs  for  muskets  and  ammunition,  which  they 
used  against  their  French  foes  in  Canada. 

The  Last  Dutch  Governor. — In  1645  a  new  governor  of 
New  Netherland  was  appointed,  the  famous  Peter  Stuyvesant 
(sti've-stint).  He  was  the  fourth  and  last,  and  the  most  hon 
est  and  sensible  governor  of  the  province.  Being  a  one- 
legged  veteran,  he  wore  a  wooden  leg  bound  with  silver, 
which  gained  him  the  name  of  "  Old  Silverleg." 

Stuyvesant  was  arbitrary  and  hot-tempered,  but  was  de 
termined  to  keep  order  in  the  colony.  Liberty  to  vote  their 
own  taxes  was  demanded  by  the  people,  but  stoutly  resisted 
by  the  governor.  Freedom  of  worship  was  likewise  inter 
fered  with.  The  Dutch  Protestant  Church  was  the  established 
religion,  and  no  one  was  permitted  to  preach  or  listen  to 
other  doctrines  under  heavy  penalties.  Some  Quakers  who 
entered  the  colony  were  cruelly  treated.  It  is  true  that 
orders  came  from  Holland  that  every  one  should  be  free  to 
worship  as  he  pleased,  but  the  tyrannical  governor  was  too 
far  off  to  be  easily  dealt  with,  and  he  interpreted  these 
orders  as  best  pleased  himself. 

New  Amsterdam. — At  that  time  there  were  about  one 
thousand  persons  in  New  Amsterdam,  partly  made  up  of 
English  and  French,  and  many  of  them  negro  slaves.  They 
occupied  the  south  end  of  the  island,  and  Stuyvesant  had 


NEW  YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY.  105 

a  high  and  strong  palisade  built  across  from  river  to  river, 
as  a  defence  against  possible  Indian  raids.  This  ran  along 
the  line  of  what  is  now  Wall  Street,  one  of  the  money 
centres  of  the  world.  The  city  grew  rapidly  under  his 
rule,  its  wealth  and  population  greatly  increasing. 

New  Sweden. — In  1638  a  colony  of  Swedes  was  planted 
on  the  Delaware,  their  settlement  being  called  New  Sweden. 
A  fort  called  Christina  was  built  by  them  near  the  site  of 
Wilmington.  This  region,  however,  was  claimed  by  the 
Dutch,  and  in  1655  Stuyvesant  sent  some  armed  ships 
there,  took  possession  of  the  Swedish  settlements,  and 
annexed  them  to  New  Netherland. 

The  Coming  of  the  English. — All  the  land  thus  occupied 
by  the  Dutch  was  claimed  by  the  English,  under  the  far-off 
discovery  of  the  Cabots.  The  claim  was  not  a  very  sound 
one,  as  the  discovery  had  not  been  followed  by  settlement, 
but  the  Hudson  River  country  was  of  great  importance,  and 
Charles  II.  coolly  made  a  present  of  it  to  his  brother  James, 
Duke  of  York,  despite  the  fact  that  Eng 
land  and  Holland  were  at  peace  and 
that  the  Dutch  had  long  possessed  it. 

One  day  in  1664   an   English   fleet 
suddenly  appeared   off  New  Amster 
dam  and  demanded  its  surrender.    Gov 
ernor    Stuyvesant   was    furious.      He 
swore  he  Avould  never  surrender.     But 
he  was  taken  by  surprise,  his  military        PETER  STUYVESANT. 
force  was  much  smaller  than  that  of 
the  English,  and  the  citizens,  hoping  to  obtain  more  liberty 
under  the  English,  refused  to  aid  him.    So,  despite  his  oath, 
he  was  forced  to  submit.     The  Dutch  flag  was  hauled  down, 
the  English  flag  was  run  up,  and  New  Amsterdam  became 
New  York, — so  named  in  honor  of  the  new  proprietor. 


106  THE   ERA   OF   SETTLEMENT. 

Holland  got  possession  of  the  province  again  in  1673, 
during  a  war  with  England.  But  in  1674  it  was  surren 
dered  by  treaty  to  England,  and  remained  thereafter  under 

English  rule. 

NEW  YORK. 

The  People's  Rights.— With  the  coming  of  the  English 
it  was  supposed  by  the  people  that  a  representative  gov 
ernment,  like  those  of  the  other  English  colonies,  would 
be  established.  But  the  new  governors  kept  up  the  old 
methods,  and  when  the  people  protested  against  being 
taxed  without  a  voice  in  the  matter,  the  protest  was  burned 
by  the  common  hangman. 

A  Royal  Governor. — One  of  the  early  governors  was 
Edmund  Andros,  who  afterward  played  the  tyrant  in  New 
England.  But  he  proved  such  an  autocrat  that  he  was 
called  home  again,  and  in  1683  the  Duke  of  York  permitted 
the  people  to  elect  an  assembly  of  their  own.  This  liberty 
did  not  last  long.  The  duke  became  king,  as  James  II.,  in 
1685,  and  New  York  was  made  a  royal  province.  At  once 
he  took  away  the  privilege  of  voting  and  the  right  of  print 
ing,  and  sent  back  the  tyrant  (now  Sir  Edmund  Andros) 
as  governor,  making  him  governor  also  of  New  England. 
Andros,  however,  spent  most  of  his  time  in  Boston,  Francis 
Nicholson  acting  as  deputy  governor  in  New  York. 

A  Change  in  Affairs.— In  1689,  when  William  III.  be 
came  king  and  after  Andros  had  been  imprisoned  and 
expelled,  a  change  took  place  in  New  York  affairs.  There 
were  now  two  parties  in  the  city, — the  aristocratic,  com 
posed  of  the  patroons,  officials,  and  rich  merchants,  and 
the  democratic,  composed  of  the  poorer  people.  At  the 
head  of  the  popular  party  was  a  German  merchant  named 
Jacob  Leisler.  The  people  were  suspicious  of  the  purposes 
of  the  aristocrats,  and,  under  Leisler,  rose  in  arms,  captured 


NEW   YORK  AND   NEW  JERSEY.  107 

the  fort,  and  drove  Nicholson  from  the  city.  Then  Leisler 
dispersed  the  council  and  set  up  a  government  of  his 
own. 

Leisler's  Rebellion. — For  two  years  Leisler  was  ruler 
in  New  York,  and  became  so  arbitrary  as  to  make  enemies 
in  his  own  party.  But  in  1691  a  new  governor,  Henry 
Sloughter,  was  sent  out.  His  lieutenant,  Ingoldsby,  arrived 
first,  and  summoned  Leisler  to  surrender  the  city.  Leisler 
refused  because  Ingoldsby  could  show  no  authority  for  his 
action.  Disputes  followed,  and  finally  a  fight,  in  which 
some  of  the  king's  troops  were  killed. 

The  next  day  Governor  Sloughter  arrived,  and  Leisler, 
deserted  by  his  followers,  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of 
treason.  He  was  tried,  found  guilty  of  treason,  and 
hanged.  This  act  of  unjust  severity  was  bitterly  resented 
by  the  popular  party,  who  looked  upon  Leisler  as  a  martyr 
in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  long  continued  in  opposition  to 
their  rulers.1 

Later  History. — The  new  governor  was  soon  succeeded 
by  Governor  Fletcher,  an  arbitrary  ruler,  of  wrhose  attempt 
to  gain  control  of  Connecticut  we  have  already  spoken. 
He  repelled  a  French  invasion  from  Canada,  but  was  sus 
pected  of  favoring  the  pirates  who  then  infested  the  seas,2 


1  Sloughter  did  not  propose  to  execute  the  prisoner,  but  Leisler's 
enemies  succeeded  in  making  him  drunk  at  a  dinner-party,  got  him 
while  in  this  state  to  sign  the  death-warrant,  and  hung  Leisler  before 
the  governor  had  recovered  his  sober  senses. 

2  The  ravages  and  cruelties  of  the  pirates  became  so  great  that  Lord 
Bellamont  determined  to  suppress  them.     A  swift  and  strong  vessel 
was  fitted  out,  and  William  Kidd,  a  Scotch  ship-master  in  New  York, 
was  sent  on  a  cruise  against  these,  sea-robbers.    After  a  time  he  turned 
pirate  himself,  and  committed  many  bold  depredations.    Rashly  going 
ashore  at  Boston,  he  was  recognized  and  arrested.     He  was  sent  for 


108  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

and  was  succeeded  in  1698  by  the  Earl  of  Bellamont,  under 
whose  juster  rule  New  York  became  more  peaceful. 

Under  the  succeeding  governors  the  liberties  of  the 
people  steadily  advanced.  One  governor,  Rip  Van  Dam, 
tried  to  prevent  free  speech  by  arresting  the  editor  of  a 
paper,  but  the  prisoner  was  set  free  by  a  jury.  The  contest 
between  the  governors  and  the  people  long  continued,  but 
with  every  contest  the  democratic  party  gained  strength. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Early  Settlements. — The  Dutch  claimed  the  New  Jersey 
region  as  part  of  New  Netherland,  established  a  trading- 
post  at  Bergen  about  1618,  and  built  Fort  Nassau,  nearly 
opposite  Philadelphia,  soon  afterward.  When  the  Duke  of 
York  became  proprietor,  he  granted  this  region  to  Lord 
Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret,  naming  it  New  Jersey,  in 
honor  of  Carteret,  who  had  been  governor  of  the  English 
island  of  Jersey.  The  first  settlement  was  made  in  1665 
at  Elizabethtown,  so  named  after  Carteret's  wife. 

Proprietary  Government. — The  liberal  terms  offered  by 
the  proprietors  soon  brought  settlers,  among  them  some 
Puritans  from  New  England,  who  founded  Newark  in  1666. 
But  trouble  arose  with  former  settlers,  who  objected  to 
paying  rent.  As  a  result  the  governor  was  driven  out  and 
another  chosen  by  the  people,  and  Berkeley's  proprietor 
ship  was  made  so  unpleasant  that  in  1674  he  sold  his 
half  of  the  province,  the  western,  to  two  Quakers,  named 
Byllinge  and  Fenwick.  In  1675,  Fenwick  formed  a  settle 
ment  in  the  southern  section  which  he  named  Salem.  Two 
years  afterward,  William  Penn  and 'other  Quakers  bought 


trial  to  London,  and  hanged  there  in  1701.  He  was  believed  to  have 
buried  great  treasures  somewhere  on  the  coast  of  Long  Island  Sound, 
and  credulous  people  often  sought  in  vain  for  this  buried  wealth. 


NEW  YORK  AND  NEW  JERSEY.  109 

Byllinge's  share  and  founded  Burlington.  Treaties  were 
now  made  with  the  Indians,  the  land  was  paid  for,  and 
peace  prevailed. 

The  Province  Divided. — At  the  suggestion  of  the  new 
proprietors,  the  province  was  divided  into  East  and  West 
Jersey,  Carteret  holding  the  former,  the  Quakers  the  latter. 
In  1681,  William  Penn  and  eleven  others  bought  East  Jer 
sey  from  the  heirs  of  Carteret,  the  wrhole  province  thus 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Friends  or  Quakers.  In  1685 
a  large  number  of  Scotch  Presbyterians  emigrated  to  the 
new  province. 

Andros  Governor. — In  disregard  of  the  rights  of  the 
proprietors,  New  Jersey  was  included  in  the  first  governor 
ship  of  Edmund  Andros.  The  people  resisted  his  encroach 
ments,  and  were  sustained  in  England.  In  consequence  a 
popular  assembly  met  at  Salem  in  1681,  and  formed  a  code 
of  laws  for  the  province. 

When  James  II.  became  king,  and  Andros  was  again 
made  governor,  new  troubles  arose,  and  the  people  of  New 
Jersey  lost  their  home  government.  From  that  time  till 
1702  there  was  no  regular  government  in  that  colony. 

A  Royal  Province. — In  1702  the  proprietors,  weary  of 
the  many  disputes  which  had  arisen  about  titles  to  land, 
withdrew  from  the  contest  and  surrendered  their  rights  to 
the  English  crown.  East  and  West  Jersey  were  then  united 
as  a  single  royal  province,  which  was  placed  under  the 
governor  of  New  York,  but  retained  its  own  assembly. 

Dissatisfaction  soon  arose  with  the  tyranny  of  the  New 
York  governors,  and  a  separate  government  was  earnestly 
requested.  This  was  granted  in  1738,  Lewis  Morris  being 
appointed  governor  of  New  Jersey  by  the  king.  The  last 
royal  governor  of  the  province  was  William  Franklin,  son 
of  Benjamin  Franklin. 


HO  THE   ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

4.  PENNSYLVANIA   AND   DELAWARE. 

First  Settlements. — On  the  Delaware  River  (so  named 
from  Lord  Delaware,  the  first  governor  of  Virginia)  lay  a 
valuable  section  of  territory,  which  was  successively  claimed 
by  several  nations.  The  Dutch  early  claimed  it,  and 
planted  a  small  colony  in  Southern  Delaware,  near  the  site 
of  Lewes.  After  some  years  this  settlement  was  attacked 
and  destroyed  by  the  Indians. 

In  1638  came  the  Swedes,  who  bought  land  from  the 
Indians,  calling  the  country  New  Sweden.  A  settlement 
was  made  near  the  site  of  Wilmington,  called  Christina,  and 
a  fort  was  built  on  Tinicum  Island.  In  1655  these  settle 
ments  were  captured  by  the  Dutch,  who  claimed  this  terri 
tory  as  their  own.  Finally,  in  1665,  after  New  York  had 
been  seized  by  the  English,  this  country  on  the  Delaware 
was  claimed  as  the  property  of  the 
Duke  of  York. 

William  Penn's  Purpose.  —  The 
persecution  in  England  of  the  sect 
calling  themselves  Friends,  but  usually 
known  as  Quakers,  caused  many  of 
them  to  look  to  America  as  a  place  of 
refuge,  and  New  Jersey  was  largely 
'WILLIAM  PENN.  settled  by  them.  In  these  settlements 

William  Penn,  a  leading  Quaker,  was 
deeply  interested,  and  he  now  decided  to  form  a  colony  of 
these  persecuted  people  in  accordance  with  views  of  .his 
own.1 


1  William  Penn  was  born  in  London  in  1644.  His  father,  Admiral 
William  Penn,  gained  celebrity  in  the  naval  wars  between  the  English 
and  the  Dutch,  but  the  son,  while  at  Oxford,  came  under  the  influence 


PENNSYLVANIA  AND   DELAWARE.  HI 

How  the  King-  Paid  his  Debts. — He  had  inherited  from 
his  father,  Admiral  Penn,  a  claim  on  the  government  for 
sixteen  thousand  pounds.  This  he  was  not  likely  to  get  in 
money,  so  he  asked  the  king,  Charles  II.,  who  was  his  per 
sonal  friend,  to  pay  him  by  a  grant  of  land  in  America. 
The  king  willingly  complied,  glad  to  get  rid  of  his  debt  so 
easily,  and  Penn  became  proprietor  in  1681  of  a  tract  of 
forty-eight  thousand  square  miles  of  wilderness  lying  west 
of  the  Delaware  River.1  This  the  king  named  Pennsylva 
nia,  or  "  Penn's  Woodland."  The  Delaware  territory,  then 
claimed  by  the  Duke  of  York,  was  granted  by  him  to  Penn, 
as  a  part  of  his  American  domain. 

Penn's  Charter. — The  charter  conveying  Pennsylvania 
to  William  Penn  was  liberal  in  its  provisions,  but  less  so 
than  in  the  case  of  the  New  England  and  Maryland  char 
ters.  It  required  that  the  laws  passed  by  the  assembly 
should  be  approved  by  the  king,  and  the  British  govern 
ment  retained  the  right  to  tax  the  province. 

Emigration  to  Pennsylvania. — Emigrants  were  sent  out 
immediately  to  the  new  province,  nearly  thirty  vessels 
reaching  there  in  the  first  year  (1681).  Some  of  the  colo- 

of  the  Friends,  and  was  expelled  in  consequence.  He  was  sent  by  his 
father  to  Paris,  where  he  became  an  accomplished  man  of  the  world. 
Afterward,  however,  though  an  intimate  friend  of  the  king  and  his 
brother,  he  became  a  Friend,  so  greatly  displeasing  his  father  that  he 
was  turned  out  of  his  home.  He  was  several  times  imprisoned  for 
his  belief,  but  strongly  asserted  in  the  courts  the  principle  of  religious 
liberty,  and  travelled  through  parts  of  Europe  preaching  his  faith. 
He  became  heir  to  a  considerable  fortune  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
but  lost  heavily  through  his  colonizing  experiment,  and  was  eventually 
imprisoned  for  debt.  He  died  in  1718. 

1  In  further  return  for  his  grant,  Penn  agreed  to  give  the  king 
annually  two  beaver-skins  and  one-fifth  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  that 
were  mined. 


112  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

nists  spent  the  winter  at  a  Swedish  settlement  on  the 
Delaware  called  Upland,  since  known  as  Chester.  The 
site  of  a  new  city  had  already  been  chosen,  on  the  tract  of 
land  between  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  Rivers,  and  the 


EARLY  PHILADELPHIA. 


city  named  and  planned.  It  was  named  Philadelphia,  a 
Bible  name  signifying  "  Brotherly  Love."  The  streets  were 
to  be  broad  and  to  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  the 
principal  ones  to  be  named  after  the  trees  of  the  forest. 
Here  many  of  the  emigrants  spent  their  first  winter  in  holes 
dug  in  the  river- bank  for  shelter. 

Perm  Seeks  his  Colony. — In  1682,  Penn  himself  crossed 
the  ocean  in  the  ship  Welcome,  bringing  with  him  a  com 
pany  of  a  hundred  colonists  of  his  own  faith  to  found  the 
city  of  Philadelphia.  He  first  landed  at  New  Castle,  in  the 
territory  granted  him  by  the  Duke  of  York.  Here  he  was 
presented  with  a  piece  of  turf  in  which  was  a  twig,  to 
signify  that  the  land  and  its  products  were  his,  and  with  a 
dish  of  water,  to  signify  that  he  owned  the  river.  Finally 
he  was  given  the  keys  of  the  fort. 

The  Great  Law. — Proceeding  to  Upland,  which  he  named 
Chester,  he  called  an  assembly,  and  with  its  aid  enacted 
the  "  Great  Law,"  that  by  which  the  new  colony  was  to 
be  governed.  The  principal  features  of  this  law  were  the 
following : 


PENNSYLVANIA  AND   DELAWARE. 


113 


Every  man  was  free  to  worship  God  in  what  manner  his 
conscience  demanded,  though  only  believers  in  Christ  could 
vote  or  hold  office. 

The  death  penalty  was  restricted  to  two  crimes,  murder 
and  treason. 

Every  prison  was  to  be  made  a  workshop  and  place  of 
reformation,— a  distinctly  new  idea  in  prison  management. 


PENN'S  TREATY  WITH  THE  INDIANS. 


The  people  were  to  be  free  to  make  their  own  laws,  with 
the  understanding  that  they  agreed  to  obey  the  laws  they 
made. 

The  proprietor,  or  his  deputy,  the  governor,  was  to  pre 
side  over  the  assembly. 

Treaty  with  the  Indians.— Penn,  despite  the  king's  grant, 
did  not  feel  that  he  owned  the  land  till  he  had  bought  it  of 

8 


114 


THE  ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 


its  true  proprietors.  He  made  an  amicable  settlement  with 
the  few  Swedes  who  occupied  the  site  of  Philadelphia,  and 
purchased  the  Indian  claim  to  the  territory. 

There  is  a  tradition  that  he  held  a  council  with  the  In 
dians  under  a  great  elm-tree  near  the  city.  Here  a  treaty 

of  peace  and  good-will 
was  made,  presents  were 
exchanged,  and  the  In 
dians  were  paid  for  their 
land.  No  oath  was  taken. 
Each  party  trusted  the 
word  of  the  other.  Yet 
the  treaty  was  held  sa 
cred  for  the  sixty  years 
during  which  Quaker 
rule  continued  in  Penn 
sylvania.1 

Growth  of  the  City. 

— No  other  colony  grew  so  rapidly  as  Pennsylvania.  Settlers 
were  attracted  by  the  cheapness  and  fertility  of  the  land,  the 
free  government,  and  the  absence  of  persecution,  and  in  a 
few  years  Pennsylvania  became  one  of  the  most  important 

1  "  It  was  the  only  treaty  never  sworn  to  and  never  broken,"  Vol 
taire  has  said.  Though  the  Indians  waged  war  with  the  colonies,  they 
sought  to  shed  no  drop  of  Quaker  blood.  "  We  will  live  in  love  with 
William  Penn  and  his  children  as  long  as  the  sun  and  moon  shall 
shine,"  they  said.  The  Indian  record  of  the  treaty  is  still  preserved.  It 
is  a  belt  of  wampum  having  on  it  the  picture  of  a  white  man  and  an 
Indian  clasping  hands.  The  elm,  under  which  tradition  says  the  treaty 
took  place,  continued  to  stand  in  Kensington,  the  northeast  section  of 
the  city,  till  1810.  It  was  then  blown  down,  and  its  site  is  now  marked 
by  a  monument  and  a  small  public  park.  While  the  British  held 
Philadelphia  during  the  Revolution  a  sentinel  was  stationed  here  to 
prevent  the  soldiers  from  cutting  down  the  tree  for  firewood. 


PENNSYLVANIA,  NEW  JERSEY,  AND  DELAWARE. 


PENNSYLVANIA  AND   DELAWARE. 


115 


of  the  colonies.  When  Penn  sailed  for  England  in  1684  he 
left  behind  him  a  prosperous  colony  of  seven  thousand  per 
sons.  Fifty  townships  had  been  settled  and  there  were  over 
three  hundred  houses  in  Philadelphia.  Among  the  settlers 
was  a  company  of  Germans,  who  had  bought  a  large  tract 
of  land.  One  of  their  first  settlements  on  this  was  called 
Germaritown  (now  a  part  of  Philadelphia).  Many  Friends 
from  Wales  also  came  and  settled  north  and  west  of  the  city. 

Perm's  Troubles. — In  1692,  Penn  lost  his  province  and 
was  imprisoned,  being  suspected  of  sympathy  with  James 
II.,  then  in  exile,  but  it  was  restored 
to  him  in  the  following  year.  He 
came  out  again  in  1699,  finding  the 
colony  very  prosperous,  but  the 
colonists  eager  for  greater  privi 
leges.  He  therefore  granted  them 
a  new  and  more  liberal  constitu 
tion,  and  reformed  affairs  in  various 
directions.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1701.  In  after-years  he  had 
much  trouble  in  regard  to  rents  due 
from  the  settlers,  and  fell  so  heavily 
into  debt  that  he  was  obliged  to 
mortgage  his  province.  For  some 
time  he  was  imprisoned  for  debt. 

Worn  out  with  these  misfortunes,  he  was  on  the  point  of 
selling  his  province  to  the  crown,  when  he  was  stricken  with 
paralysis  and  became  incapable  of  transacting  business. 

Later  History. — Penn's  sons  inherited  his  province  on 
his  death  in  1718.  Their  policy  was  much  less  just  and 
liberal  than  his,  and  constant  irritation  succeeded.  The 
disputes  continued  until  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  during 
which  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  purchased  the  interest  of 


PROPRIETARY   SEAL  OF    PENN 
SYLVANIA. 


116  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

the  proprietors  for  the  sum  of  six  hundred  and  fifty  thou 
sand  dollars. 

Delaware. — During  Penn's  absence  after  his  first  visit  the 
"  Three  Lower  Counties  on  the  Delaware,"  the  grant  re 
ceived  from  the  Duke  of  York,  became  dissatisfied  and  with 
drew  from  the  union  with  Pennsylvania,  Penn  giving  them 
a  lieutenant-governor  of  their  own.  They  were  reunited 
by  Governor  Fletcher,  of  New  York,  who  governed  Penn 
sylvania  in  1693,  during  Penn's  brief  removal.  Other  dis 
putes  arose,  and  in  1703  the  proprietor  gave  Delaware  a 
separate  assembly,  though  one  governor  ruled  both  colonies. 
This  arrangement  held  good  till  1776,  when  Delaware  was 
organized  as  a  .separate  State. 

5.  MARYLAND. 
The  Principle  of  Toleration. — Almost  at  the  same  time 

that  Roger  Williams  was  leaving  Massachusetts  to  found  a 
new  colony  where  all  should  have  free 
dom  of  worship,  a  new  colony  was 
being  formed  farther  south  with  the 
same  principle  in  its  charter.  It  was 
founded  by  a  Catholic  nobleman  of 
England,  George  Calvert,  Lord  Balti 
more.  He  had  been  a  member  of  the 
London  Company,  and  after  its  disso 
lution  a  purpose  arose  in  his  mind  to 
establish  a  colony  of  his  own,  in  which 
members  of  his  church,  then  ill-treated 

in  England,  might  have  full  liberty  of  worship. 

A  Locality  Chosen. — His  first  plan  was  to  found  a  colony 

in  Newfoundland.1     But  finding  the  climate  there  too  severe. 


1  Lord  Baltimore  formed  a  small  settlement  called  Ferryland  in 
Newfoundland  in  1621.     He  visited  this  in  1627,  and  again  in  1628, 


MARYLAND.  117 

he  sailed  to  Jamestown,  where  he  soon  discovered  as  much 
intolerance  as  he  had  left  at  home.  Repelled  from  this 
locality,  he  made  his  way  up  Chesapeake  Bay  and  explored 
the  country  north  of  the  Potomac.  The  country  and  climate 
here  seemed  to  him  delightful,  there  were  no  settlers  to  in 
terfere  with  his  plans,  and  he  fixed  on  this  region  as  the 
scene  of  his  experiment. 

Lord  Baltimore's  Charter. — Returning  to  England,  he 
applied  to  Charles  I.  for  a  charter  for  the  proposed  colony. 
This  the  king  readily  granted,  and  gave  to  the  region  the 
name  of  Maryland  in  honor  of  Henrietta  Maria,  his  queen. 
Charles  not  only  granted  the  territory,  but  gave  Lord  Balti 
more  unexampled  powers,  making  him  almost  a  king  in  his 
new  domain.  He  was  styled  "  Lord  Proprietary"  of  Mary 
land,  and  in  the  charter  was  privileged  to  coin  money, 
create  courts,  appoint  judges,  confer  titles  of  nobility,  and 
summon  a  representative  assembly,  whose  laws  did  not 
need  to  be  approved  by  the  king,  but  only  by  the  proprie 
tary.  The  sole  right  to  lay  taxes  was  given  to  the  assembly 
and  its  lord  governor. 

No  other  British  subject  had  ever  received  such  exten 
sive  privileges,  while  the  only  payment  demanded  for  the 
land  was  two  Indian  arrows  yearly,  and  one-fifth  of  all  the 
gold  and  silver  mined.  The  latter  was  a  dead  letter  here 
as  in  Pennsylvania,  as  no  gold  or  silver  was  ever  found  in 
either  of  these  colonies. 

A  Settlement  Formed. — George  Calvert  died  before  the 
charter  was  issued,  and  it  was  made  out  in  the  name  of 
his  son,  Cecilius  Calvert,  the  second  Lord  Baltimore.  His 
brother,  Leonard  Calvert,  brought  over  a  colony  of  about 


remaining  there  till  the  autumn  of  1629,  when  the  bleakness  of  the 
climate  forced  him  to  withdraw. 


118  THE  ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

three  hundred  people  in  the  spring  of  1634,  and  landed 
with  them  near  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac,  on  the  northern 
bank  of  which  the  town  of  St.  Mary's  was  founded. 

Religious  Freedom. — It  had  been  made  known  that 
absolute  freedom  of  worship  would  be  granted  in  the  new 
colony  to  all  Christians.  This  did  not  go  so  far  as  the 
toleration  of  Roger  Williams,  who  gave  religious  freedom 
to  all,  Christian  and  pagan  alike,  but  it  was  a  degree  of 
liberty  then  utterly  unknown  in  Europe,  and  one  which 
attracted  many  persons  of  liberal  opinions.  There  were 
about  twenty  gentlemen  of  wealth  in  the  colony,  most  of 
them  Catholics,1  but  the  other  settlers  were  probably  nearly 
all  Protestants.  Father  White,  a  priest  who  came  with 
them,  converted  the  wigwam  of  an  Indian  chief  into  a 
chapel,  and  thus  established  the  first  English  Catholic 
church  in  America.2 

Progress  of  the  Colony. — From  the  beginning  the  peo 
ple  took  part  in  making  the  laws  for  their  own  government, 
and  in  a  few  years  were  given  the  power  of  originating 
these  laws.  This  combined  political  and  religious  freedom 
proved  very  attractive,  and  the  colony  grew  rapidly  in 
wealth  and  population.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco,  which 

1  A  tax  of  twenty  pounds  a  month  was  at  that  time  imposed  on 
all  Catholics  in  England  who  did  not  attend  Church  of  England  ser 
vices.     This  exaction,  equivalent  to  several  hundred  dollars  of  present 
money,  was  ruinously  severe.     Lord  Baltimore  would  not  have  been 
permitted  to  form  a  colony  of  intolerant  Catholics,  and  was  obliged  to 
grant  religious  liberty. 

2  This  colony  escaped  the  suffering  experienced  in  several  others. 
The  Indians  had  been  about  to  vacate  their  lands,  on  account  of  perse 
cution  by  a  stronger  tribe,  and  willingly  sold  them  to  the  settlers. 
These  lands  were  in  condition  for  planting,  and  the  Indian  methods 
of  cultivation  were  taught  the  new-comers,  so  that  they  early  raised  a 
crop  of  corn. 


MARYLAND.  119 

had  proved  so  profitable  in  Virginia,  was  begun  here,  and 
soon  became  a  source  of  prosperity.  Grain  replaced  tobacco 
in  the  interior,  commerce  grew,  and  towns  began  to  be 
formed.  Providence,  a  settlement  of  Puritans,  afterward 
had  its  name  changed  to  Annapolis,  and  became  the  capital 
of  the  province.  Baltimore,  named  from  the  proprietors, 
was  founded  in  1729,  soon  became  an  important  town,  and 
in  time  grew  into  one  of  the  most  active  Atlantic  seaports. 

The  Clayborne  Troubles. — Early  in  the  history  of  Mary 
land  trouble  began.  Before  Lord  Baltimore  received  his 
charter  a  Virginian  named  William  Clayborne  had  formed 
a  post  for  the  fur-trade  on  Kent  Island,  in  Chesapeake  Bay. 
This  was  within  the  limits  of  Maryland,  but  Clayborne 
refused  to  recognize  the  authority  of  Governor  Calvert,  and 
appealed  to  arms  in  defence  of  his  claim.  A  fight  ensued 
in  consequence,  blood  was  shed,  and  Clayborne  was  driven 
out. 

Renewal  of  Troubles. — About  ten  years  afterward,  in 
1645,  the  quarrel  was  renewed.  Many  Puritans,  drawn  by 
the  toleration  of  the  Baltimores,  had  now  settled  in  Mary 
land,  and  manifested  there  a  spirit  very  different  from  that 
shown  toward  them  by  the  proprietors.  Civil  war  had 
begun  in  England  between  the  Puritans  and  the  king,  and, 
taking  advantage  of  this,  Clayborne  stirred  up  the  Maryland 
Puritans  to  an  attack  on  the  Catholics. 

"War  in  the  Colony. — Warlike  conditions  succeeded, 
and  for  two  years  the  colony  was  in  a  turmoil.  Governor 
Calvert  was  forced  to  flee ;  but  he  returned  in  1646  with 
a  strong  force,  and  Clayborne  was  in  his  turn  expelled.  In 
1654  civil  war  again  began,  and  Clayborne  and  the  Puritans 
were  victorious.  Commissioners  were  now  sent  over  from 
England,  who  expelled  the  proprietor's  deputy  and  replaced 
him  by  a  new  governor.  They  then  called  an  assembly, 


120  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

for  which  they  forbade  any  Catholic  to  be  a  candidate,  or 
even  to  vote.  This  assembly  went  so  far  as  to  repeal  the 
act  of  toleration  which  had  been  passed  by  the  assembly  of 
1649,  and  to  prohibit  Catholic  worship  in  Maryland.  It 
declared  that  Lord  Baltimore  had  no  longer  any  rights  in 
the  colony. 

Lord  Baltimore  Restored. — The  dissensions  continued 
until  finally  settled  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  then  ruler  in  Eng 
land.  He  carefully  examined  the  case  and  restored  the 
government  to  Lord  Baltimore.  This  ended  the  trouble 
for  the  time,  freedom  of  worship  was  re-established,  and 
during  the  next  thirty  years  the  colony  grew  in  wealth  and 
population. 

The  Protestants  in  Power. — Yet  the  old  religious  diffi 
culty  in  time  reappeared,  the  adherents  of  the  Church  of 
England  seeking,  after  1676,  to  oppress  all  who  differed 
from  them  in  religious  faith.  In  1689,  William  and  Mary, 
the  new  monarchs  of  England,  came  to  the  throne.  They 
were  pledged  to  support  the  Protestant  cause,  and  severe 
laws  were  passed  against  Catholics.  The  government  of 
Maryland  was  usurped  by  a  Protestant  association,  and  the 
Calverts  were  robbed  of  their  province. 

Maryland  a  Royal  Province. — In  1691  Maryland  was 
declared  a  royal  province,  governors  were  appointed  by  the 
crown,  the  seat  of  government  was  changed  from  St.  Mary's 1 
to  Annapolis,  and  the  Church  of  England  was  declared  the 
established  church,  taxes  being  laid  for  its  support,  though 
it  had  few  members  among  the  population.  The  Catholic 
worship  was  forbidden,  and  was  not  permitted  again  in 
Maryland  while  it  remained  under  English  rule. 


1  St.  Mary's  suffered  a  still  more  complete  decline  than  Jamestown. 
While  the  latter  has  left  some  relics,  scarcely  a  trace  of  the  ancient 
capital  of  Maryland  remains. 


NORTH   AND   SOUTH   CAROLINA.  121 

The  Calverts  Regain  their  Rights. — In  1715  the  fourth 
Lord  Baltimore,  who  had  become  a  Protestant,  and  whose 
father  had  just  died,  was  restored  to  his  proprietary  rights, 
and  the  government  again  fell  to  the  Calverts,  who  ruled 
almost  like  hereditary  monarchs  till  1776,  when  the  Dec 
laration  of  Independence  freed  Maryland  from  the  control 
of  king  or  proprietor. 

The  Mason  and  Dixon  Line. — The  boundary  between 
Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  had  not  been  clearly  indicated 
in  the  grants,  and  for  years  there  were  disputes  between  the 
proprietors  of  the  two  regions  as  to  the  correct  boundary- 
line.1  In  the  end,  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  two 
able  English  surveyors,  were  appointed  to  establish  the  true 
boundary.  They  were  employed  in  this  task  from  1763  to 
1767,  running  a  line  due  west  from  the  northeast  corner  of 
Maryland  nearly  three  hundred  miles.  A  stone  was  set  up 
at  every  fifth  mile  with  the  coat  of  arms  of  William  Penn 
cut  on  the  north  side  and  that  of  Lord  Baltimore  on  the 
south.  In  after-years  that  line  became  famous  as  the 
dividing  line  between  the  free  and  the  slave  States. 

6.  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Early  Settlers. — The  first  to  form  a  settlement  on  the 
coast  of  Carolina  was  the  Huguenot  Jean  Ribault,  whose 
massacre  by  the  Spaniard  Menendez  has  been  already  de 
scribed.  He  named  the  country  Carolina,  after  Charles  IX. 
(Carolus  in  Latin)  of  France.  This  name  was  afterward 
adopted  by  the  English  in  honor  of  Charles  II.  of  England. 

A  century  passed  after  Ribault's  time  before  a  settlement 


1  The  grant  to  Lord  Baltimore  had  extended  to  the  sea  and  covered 
the  colony  of  Delaware.  But  the  claim  of  the  Baltimores  on  this  terri 
tory  conflicted  with  that  of  the  Duke  of  York  and  failed  to  be  estab 
lished. 


122 


THE  ERA   OF   SETTLEMENT. 


was  made.  Some  farmers  had,  however,  made  their  way 
hither  from  Virginia,  and  occupied  land  on  the  Chowan 
River  and  Albemarle  Sound.  With  these  came  rough  char 
acters,  who  found  life  in  Virginia  growing  too  civilized  for 
their  taste.  There  also  emigrated  hither  some  Quakers  and 
other  dissenters,  who  had  been  persecuted  for  their  faith 
in  Virginia. 

The  Lord  Proprietaries.— In  1663,  Charles  II.  granted 
the  territory  between  Virginia  and  Florida  to  some  friends 

who  had 
aided  in 
his  resto 
ration,  in 
cluding  the 
Duke  of 
Albemarle, 
the  Earl  of 
Clarendon, 
and  six 
others. 

The  grant  included  not  only 
the  Carolinas,  but  Georgia 
and  part  of  Florida.  W^est- 
ward  it  extended  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  char 
ter  was  somewhat  similar 
to  that  which  had  been 

granted  to  Lord  Baltimore  for  Maryland,  and  decreed  re 
ligious  liberty  to  all  colonists.  This  liberality  proved  an 
important  aid  to  the  growth  of  population. 

Settlements  Formed. — In  1663  those  settlers  already  in 
the  country  were  formed  into  a  colony  named  Albemarle. 
Two  years  afterward  some  West  India  planters  settled  on 


THE  CAROLINAS  AND  GEORGIA. 


NORTH  AND  SOUTH   CAROLINA.  123 

Cape  Fear  River,1  their  settlement  being  named  Clarendon, 
in  honor  of  Lord  Clarendon.  In  1670  two  shiploads  of 
emigrants  from  England  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Ashley 
River,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  province.  After  remain 
ing  there  ten  years  they  sought  a  new  location  on  the  pen 
insula  between  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  Rivers,  calling  their 
settlement  Charlestown,  after  the  king.  This  in  time  became 
shortened  to  Charleston. 

Later  Settlers. — The  religious  liberty  existing  in  the 
province  had  the  effect  of  bringing  thither  in  1707  a  large 
number  of  Huguenots,  fleeing  from  persecution  in  France. 
In  1709  a  still  larger  number  of  Germans,  from  the  Pa 
latinate,  settled  at  a  locality  they  called  New-Bern,  from 
Bern,  in  Switzerland.  At  a  later  date  many  Scotch-Irish 
and  Scotch  Highlanders  sought  the  North  Carolina  region. 
These  varied  settlers  became  engaged  in  tobacco  culture 
and  in  the  production  of  lumber,  tar,  and  turpentine  from 
the  broad  forests  of  yellow  pine  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
province. 

South  Carolina. — The  settlers  who  sought  the  South 
Carolina  region  were  closely  similar  to  those  of  the  north 
ern  section.  Huguenots  from  France  came  here  in  large 
numbers  after  1685.  At  a  later  date  there  came  Germans, 
Scotch  Highlanders,  and  a  few  Scotch-Irish.  Many  Dutch 
from  New  York,  dissatisfied  with  English  rule,  also  came 
hither. 

Rice  and  Indigo. — Both  sections  at  first  grew  slowly,  and 
the  population  was  much  scattered,  there  being  few  towns. 
Charleston  took  its  first  decided  start  after  1693.  In  that 


1  They  came  from  Barbadoes  and  occupied  a  region  which  had  been 
occupied  several  years  before  by  people  from  New  England  and  after 
ward  abandoned. 


124  THE   ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

year  the  governor  received  a  small  bag  of  rice  from  the 
captain  of  a  vessel  from  Madagascar,  and  planted  the  grain 
as  an  experiment.  It  grew  so  luxuriantly  that  the  culture 
of  rice  at  once  began,  and  proved  so  lucrative  that  a  large 
population  was  attracted  to  the  region.  In  1741  the  culture 
of  indigo  was  similarly  tried  as  an  experiment,  and  with 
equally  favorable  results.1  At  a  much  later  date  the  cotton 
plant  proved  superior  to  either  as  a  source  of  wealth. 
South  Carolina,  however,  still  continues  a  large  rice-pro 
ducing  State. 

The  "  Grand  Model." — An  interesting  experiment  in  the 
art  of  government  was  made  in  the  Carolina  province. 
Instead  of  the  people  being  given  political  liberty,  as  they 
had  been  in  many  of  the  other  colonies,  a  most  autocratic 
form  of  government  was  adopted.  John  Locke,  the  famous 
English  philosopher,  and  Lord  Shaftesbury,  a  prominent 
member  of  the  company,  formed  in  1670  a  constitution  for 
Carolina  which  they  called  the  "  Grand  Model,"  because 
they  believed  it  to  embody  the  most  perfect  system  of 
government  that  had  ever  been  devised. 

The  Rights  of  the  People. — It  established  a  nobility 
and  a  system  of  laws  which  was  intended  to  cover  all 
questions  that  could  possibly  arise.  But  it  had  the  serious 
defect  of  utterly  ignoring  the  rights  of  the  people.  They 
were  not  permitted  to  vote  or  to  hold  land,  and  could  not 


1  Indigo  was  first  planted  by  the  daughter  of  Governor  Lucas.  The 
first  seed  sown  was  killed  by  frost.  She  tried  again,  and  worms  de 
stroyed  the  young  plants.  A  third  time  she  planted  the  seeds,  and 
this  time  the  plants  grew  well.  The  news  of  her  success  filled  the 
neighboring  planters  with  delight,  as  indigo  at  that  time  brought  in 
Europe  sometimes  as  much  as  a  dollar  and  a  half  a  pound.  The  culture 
extended  till  Charleston  exported  over  a  million  pounds  in  a  single 
year. 


NORTH   AND   SOUTH   CAROLINA.  125 

even  leave  the  land  they  tilled  without  the  permission  of 
its  noble  owner.1  Their  children  were  to  be  kept  in  the 
same  condition  of  slavery. 

As  the  "  Grand  Model"  ignored  the  people,  they  in  turn 
ignored  the  "  Grand  Model."  They  refused  to  be  bound 
by  its  regulations,  and  the  proprietaries  tried  in  vain  to 
put  it  into  effect.  Contest  and  turbulence  succeeded  and 
continued  for  twenty  years.  Governors  were  driven  out 
and  popular  governors  appointed,  and  a  state  of  rebellion 
existed,  partly  due  to  the  heavy  taxes  laid  by  the  pro 
prietaries,  who  looked  on  the  colonies  mainly  as  sources 
of  income.  In  1693  the  attempt  to  establish  the  u  Grand 
Model"  government  was  definitely  abandoned. 

Division  of  the  Carolinas. — It  was  soon  found  that 
Carolina  was  too  large  and  its  settlements  too  widely  sepa 
rated  to  be  governed  as  one  colony.  As  a  result  two 
assemblies  were  chosen,  and  there  were  usually  two  gov 
ernors.  In  1695,  however,  John  Archdale,  a  Quaker,  was 
sent  out  as  the  governor  of  both  colonies.  Under  his 
wise  administration  the  dissensions  ceased  and  order  was 
restored.  The  quit-rents  to  the  proprietaries,  which  had 
caused  such  discontent,  were  reduced,  the  colonists  were 
given  the  right  of  suffrage,  and  a  new  era  of  prosperity 
began  for  the  colonies. 

Royal  Provinces  Established. — New  troubles  came, 
however,  in  later  years,  and  the  proprietaries,  growing 
weary  of  the  incessant  complaints  and  disorders,  sold  in 


1  There  was  to  be  a  nobility  having  different  ranks, — proprietors, 
landgraves  or  earls,  caciques  or  barons,  and  lords  of  manors, — each 
noble  to  own  an  estate  in  proportion  to  his  rank.  Persons  holding 
fifty  acres  were  freeholders,  with  the  right  to  vote.  The  tenants  and 
laborers  were  to  be  like  the  mediaeval  serfs.  The  plan  was  absurdly 
unsuited  to  the  colonizing  of  a  wilderness,  and  necessarily  failed. 


126  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

1729  their  rights  to  the  crown.  From  that  time  forward 
the  Carolinas  were  royal  provinces.  They  were  now  for 
mally  divided  into  two  colonies,  as  they  had  practically 
been  before,  and  were  thereafter  known  as  North  and 
South  Carolina. 

Indian  Wars. — The  Carolinas  did  not  escape  contests 
with  the  Indian  owners  of  the  land.  A  powerful  Indian 
tribe  called  the  Tuscaroras,  a  member  of  the  Iroquois 
family,  though  long  separated  from  its  northern  kindred, 
occupied  the  territory  of  North  Carolina,  and  was  naturally 
dissatisfied  to  see  this  increasing  horde  of  whites  making 
way  into  its  native  realm.  In  1711  the  Tuscaroras  broke 
upon  the  settlements,  captured  and  burned  to  death  the 
surveyor-general  of  the  colony,  and  in  one  night  slaughtered 
one  hundred  and  thirty  whites.  The  savages  destroyed  all 
before  them  along  Pamlico  and  Albemarle  Sounds,  and 
ceased  their  murderous  work  only  when  subdued  by  a 
strong  party  of  whites  and  friendly  Indians  from  South 
Carolina.  In  the  following  year  another  outbreak  took 
place.  It  ended  in  the  complete  subjection  of  the  Tusca 
roras.  Eight  hundred  of  them  were  taken  and  the  re 
mainder  driven  from  the  country.  They  made  their  way 
north,  and  joined  their  Iroquois  brethren  in  New  York. 
These,  who  had  previously  been  called  the  "  Five  Na 
tions,"  were  afterward  known  as  the  "  Six  Nations." 

7.  GEORGIA. 

Oglethorpe's  Project. — The  original  grant  to  the  propri 
etaries  of  the  Carolinas  embraced  the  region  between  South 
Carolina  and  Florida.  This  remained  unsettled,  and  re 
verted  with  the  Carolinas  to  the  crown.  In  1732  a  grant 
of  it  was  made  for  twenty-one  years  to  General  James  Ogle- 
thorpe,  a  benevolent  Englishman,  who  had  a  double  pur- 


GEORGIA. 


127 


pose  in  view.  One  of  his  purposes  was  to  plant  a  military 
barrier  between  South  Carolina  and  Florida  that  would 
check  the  forays  of  the  Spaniards  and  Indians.  The  other 
was  a  scheme  of  benevolence. 

Imprisonment  of  Debtors. — 
It  was  the  law  in  England  at 
that  time  to  imprison  insolvent 
debtors,  many  of  whom  lay  long 
in  durance.  There  were  thou 
sands  thus  confined,  many  of 
them  honest  unfortunates,  im 
prisoned  often  for  very  small 
debts,  and  cruelly  treated.  Ogle- 
thorpe  had  seen  much  of  the 
misery  of  these  poor  captives, 
and  his  heart  was  moved  to  do 
what  he  could  to  help  them.  He 

proposed  to  pay  the  debts  of  the  most  deserving,  transport 
them  and  their  families  to  America,  and  give  them  an 
opportunity  to  make  a  fresh  start  in  life.  He  offered  an 
asylum  also  to  all  who  were  poor  and  unfortunate,  or  ill- 
treated  on  account  of  their  religious  belief. 

A  Colony  Formed. — The  proposed  colony  was  named 
Georgia,  after  George  II.,  from  whom  the  grant  came.  The 
first  emigrants  were  sent  out  in  1733,  and  settled  on  the 
Savannah  River,  naming  the  place  Savannah.  The  colony 
of  debtors  was  quickly  re-enforced  by  an  immigration  of  the 
persecuted  Moravians  and  Lutherans  of  Germany  and  of 
Scotch  Highlanders,  who  formed  other  settlements.1 


JAMES  OGLETHORPE. 


1  For  a  whole  year  Oglethorpe  lived  in  a  tent,  set  up  under  four  pine- 
trees.  Despite  the  king's  grant,  he  looked  on  the  Indians  as  the  owners 
of  the  land,  and  paid  them  for  it.  In  consequence  his  relations  with 


128  THE  ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

Georgian  Industries. — Plantations  of  rice  and  indigo 
were  soon  started,  and  the  lumber-trade  became  brisk.  Mul 
berry-trees  grew  wild  in  the  forest,  and  great  hopes  were 
entertained  of  developing  the  silk  industry.1  Some  progress 
was  made  in  this  direction,  but  in  the  end  cotton  replaced 
silk,  as  a  more  profitable  product. 

Restrictive  Laws. — Oglethorpe  and  the  associates  who 
had  joined  him  in  the  enterprise  followed  the  plan  adopted 
by  the  proprietaries  of  Carolina,  of  providing  the  colony 
with  a  ready-made  constitution ;  and  with  the  same  result. 
All  laws  were  to  be  made  by  the  company,  and  the  people 
were  deprived  of  self-government.  Women,  since  they 
could  not  do  military  service,  could  not  inherit  land,  and 
the  area  granted  to  men  was  small.  No  Roman  Catholic 
was  allowed  to  settle  in  the  colony.  The  importation  of 
spirituous  liquors  was  forbidden,  and  slavery  was  prohibited. 

Georgia  Becomes  a  Royal  Colony. — These  laws  proved 
inapplicable  to  the  situation,  and  before  many  years  were 
all  repealed.  They  had  acted  to  check  the  development 
of  Georgia,  which  prospered  after  their  repeal.  In  1752 
the  province  was  surrendered  to  the  crown,  and  remained 
a  royal  colony  till  the  Revolution. 

The  Wesleys  and  Whiteneld. — On  the  second  visit  of 
Oglethorpe  to  his  colony,  in  1736,  he  was  accompanied  by 
John  and  Charles  Wesley,  the  founders  of  Methodism.  It 
was  their  purpose  to  attempt  the  conversion  to  Christianity 
of  the  Indians.  Another  noted  Methodist,  the  Rev.  George 
Whitefield  (whUffidd\  came  out  afterward  and  established 

them  were  always  friendly.     Oglethorpe  lived  to  see  Georgia  an  inde 
pendent  State,  not  dying  till  1785,  in  his  ninety-seventh  year. 

1  A  silk  dress  was  made  for  the  queen  out  of  the  first  silk  exported. 
The  silk-culture  was  kept  up  until  the  Revolution,  but  never  proved 
very  profitable. 


LOUISIANA. 


129 


an  orphan  asylum  near  Savannah.1  It  was  largely  due  to 
his  efforts  that  the  purchase  of  negro  slaves  was  allowed. 
The  prohibition  seemed  to  him  very  injurious  to  the  inter 
ests  of  the  colony. 

8.  LOUISIANA. 

The  French  in  the  South 
west. — Though  this  section 
of  our  work  has  been  de 
voted  to  the  history  of  the 
English  colonies,  it  seems 
necessary  at  this  point  to 
speak  of  the  movements  of 
the  French  in  the  South 
west,  following  the  explora 
tion  of  the  Mississippi  by  La 
Salle. 

In  1699  they  founded  the 
colony  of  Biloxi,  on  the  coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Fif 
teen  years  afterward  an  ex 
pedition  ascended  the  Mis 
sissippi  to  the  present  site 
of  Natchez  and  built  Fort 
Rosalie.  Several  settlements 
were  also  made  farther  east, 
including  Fort  St.  Louis  and 
other  posts  on  the  Alabama 
and  Tombigbee  Rivers,  and  Mobile,  which  was  founded  in 
1701,  and  became  the  capital  of  the  province. 

1  He  was  a  preacher  of  wonderful  eloquence,  and  made  his  way 
through  the  colonies  preaching  to  audiences  of  many  thousands  of 
people.  By  means  of  contributions  received  from  these  he  supported 
his  orphan  asylum. 

9 


FRENCH   SETTLEMENTS  IN  THE  WEST  AND 
SOUTH. 


130 


THE   ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 


New  Orleans  Founded. — In  1718,  New  Orleans,  the  first 
permanent  settlement  in  the  present  Louisiana,  was  laid  out 
by  a  party  of  colonists.  It  was  named  after  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  then  regent  of  France.  Though  it  began  in  a 
humble  way,  the  commercial  advantages  of  its  situation 
were  so  evident  that  in  1723  it  replaced  Mobile  as  the  capital 
of  the  province. 

The  Mississippi  Scheme. — In  1716  an  adventurous  spec 
ulator  named  John  Law  obtained  from  the  Duke  of  Orleans 

a  charter  for  a  project  which 
was  to  enrich  France.  A  com 
pany  was  formed  which  obtained 
grants  of  the  colonial  posses 
sions  of  the  kingdom  and  control 
of  the  foreign  trade.  Inexhaust 
ible  mines  were  to  be  opened 
in  Louisiana,  and  all  connected 
with  the  company  were  to  be 
enriched.  All  classes  vied  in 
the  purchase  of  shares,  which 
rose  to  sixty  times  the  original 
price.  In  1720  the  bubble  burst, 

the  mines  were  shown  to  be  imaginary,  and  heavy  losses 
fell  upon  the  credulous  people  of  France.  For  years  after 
ward  the  development  of  the  colony  was  checked. 

Progress  of  Louisiana. — At  this  time  Louisiana  had  sev 
eral  thousand  inhabitants.  Rice  was  the  principal  crop, 
tobacco  and  indigo  were  grown,  and  slave  labor  was  em 
ployed.  Grain  for  food  was  brought  down  the  river  from 
the  growing  settlements  in  the  north. 

An  Indian  war  arose  from  an  attempt  of  the  French  at 
Fort  Rosalie  to  seize  the  principal  town  of  the  Natchez  In 
dians.  The  latter  rose  and  massacred  the  whites  at  the 


COSTUMES  OF  FRENCH  SETTLERS. 


CUSTOMS  AND   CONDITIONS  OF  THE   COLONIES.       131 

settlement  (1729).  Shortly  afterward  a  force  from  New 
Orleans  attacked  the  Natchez,  killed  many  of  them,  and 
dispersed  the  rest,  utterly  breaking  up  the  tribe.1 

9.  CUSTOMS   AND   CONDITIONS   OF   THE 
COLONIES. 

NEW   ENGLAND. 

Religious  Strictness. — The  conditions  of  society  differed 
considerably  in  the  different  colonies,  both  on  account  of 
difference  in  climate  and  in  the  original  opinions  and  cus 
toms  of  the  colonists.  In  New  England  religious  observ 
ances  were  rigidly  strict.  In  the  early  days  the  people 
were  called  to  church  on  Sunday  morning  by  the  beating 
of  a  drum.  In  other  cases  the  sound  of  a  horn  or  bell  re 
minded  them  of  a  duty  which  could  not  be  neglected  with 
out  punishment. 

Going  to  Church. — The  church,  in  exposed  villages,  was 
surrounded  with  a  stockade  and  served  as  a  fort,  the  men 
walking  to  church  with  their  guns  on  their  shoulders,  and 
keeping  them  within  easy  reach  during  the  sermon.  The 
church  edifices,  of  course,  improved  in  appearance  as  time 
went  on,  but  continued  bare  and  unornamented.  The 
benches  were  rude  and  hard,  and  there  were  no  means  of 
heating  other  than  by  heated  stones  or  hand-stoves  which 
the  worshippers  brought  with  them. 

1  This  was  an  unfortunate  event  for  research  into  Indian  history  and 
habits.  The  Natchez  were  a  most  interesting  tribe,  differing  from  all 
others  in  the  United  States  region.  They  formed  an  absolute  monarchy, 
and  worshipped  the  sun  as  a  deity,  their  kings  being  considered  descend 
ants  of  the  Sun-god.  They  had  temples  on  mounds,  and  an  elaborate 
system  of  religious  worship  and  ceremony.  It  seems  probable  that 
they  may  have  been  a  remnant  of  the  Mound-Builders  of  the  North. 


132  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

The  Church  Service. — Inside  the  church  the  worshippers 
were  separated,  the  old  people,  the  young  men,  and  the 
young  women  having  each  a  fixed  place.  The  boys  sat  on 
the  pulpit  stairs  and  in  the  gallery,  and  were  kept  under 
the  watchful  eyes  of  the  constable.  Sleeping  was  not  per 
mitted,  even  under  the  infliction  of  a  sermon  hours  in  length. 
The  constable,  whose  duty  it  was  to  keep  the  congregation 
awake,  carried  a  staff  with  the  foot  of  a  hare  on  one  end 
and  the  tail  on  the  other.  A  nodding  woman  was  reminded 
of  her  duty  by  feeling  the  hare's  tail  gently  brush  her  cheek  ; 
but  a  boy  caught  asleep  was  roused  by  a  sharp  rap  on  his 
pate  from  the  hare's  foot. 

Keeping-  the  Sabbath. — No  one  was  permitted  to  work, 
ride,  or  amuse  himself  on  Sunday.  It  was  unlawful  to  sit 
in  Boston  Common  on  that  day,  or  to  walk  in  the  street 
except  to  church.  A  man  was  publicly  whipped  for  shoot 
ing  fowl  on  Sunday.  A  woman  was  threatened  with  ban 
ishment  for  smiling  in  church.  A  person  absent  from 
church  for  more  than  one  Sunday  was  in  danger  of  being 
fined,  whipped,  or  set  in  the  stocks.1  Swearing  was  pro 
hibited  in  nearly  all  the  colonies,  and  in  New  England  a 
split  stick  was  sometimes  placed  on  the  swearer's  tongue. 

Houses. — The  early  dwellings  were  log  huts,  one  story 
high,  with  steep,  thatched  roofs.  Some  few  were  of  brick 
or  stone,  two  stories  high.  The  chimneys  at  first  were 

1  Robert  Pike,  the  sturdy  opponent  of  witchcraft,  had  urgent  busi 
ness  one  Sunday  which  called  him  from  home.  As  the  New  England 
Sunday  began  at  six  o'clock  Saturday  evening  and  ended  at  the  same 
hour  on  Sunday,  he  waited  impatiently  for  the  close  of  the  day  that 
he  might  be  off.  The  sun  sank  into  a  bank  of  clouds,  and,  taking  this 
as  a  good  excuse  for  sunset,  he  mounted  his  horse  and  rode  away.  But 
the  sun  was  not  down,  and  as  he  rode  past  the  house  of  an  unfriendly 
neighbor  its  tell-tale  beams  shone  through  a  rift  in  the  clouds.  The 
next  day  Mr.  Pike  found  himself  fined  for  travelling  on  Sunday. 


CUSTOMS  AND   CONDITIONS   OF  THE   COLONIES.       133 

made  of  wood  smeared  with  clay.     In  later  days  the  farm 
house  was  generally  built  of  huge  timbers,  hewed  or  split, 
and  covered  with  rough 
clapboards.     The  upper 
story  often  projected,  so 
that  the  inmates   could 
fire  down  on  Indians  if 
attacked. 

Cooking. — In     the 
kitchen  of  the  later  and  ^__ 

larger  houses  yawned  a  A  BLOCK-HOUSE. 

huge      stone     fireplace, 

heaped  in  winter  with  blazing  logs  that  served  alike  for  cook 
ing  and  warming.  Swinging  cranes  bore  pots  over  the  fire, 
and  cooking  was  also  done  with  the  aid  of  spits  and  skillets 
on  the  hearth.  Some  houses  had  brick  ovens,  which  were 
heated  with  blazing  wood,  and  retained  the  heat  for  hours. 
In  these  bread  was  baked,  the  ashes  being  first  swept  out. 

Furniture. — Oiled  paper  often  took  the  place  of  glass  in 
the  windows,  and  when  glass  was  used  the  panes  were  small 
and  diamond-shaped.1  Furniture  was  scanty  and  largely 
home-made.  Carpets  were  almost  unknown,  the  floors 
being  often  covered  with  sand,  which  was  swept  into  orna 
mental  designs  in  the  best  room.  Clocks  were  rare,  and 


1  In  England,  at  the  time  of  settlement  of  the  American  colonies, 
the  walls  were  plastered  only  in  the  houses  of  the  rich.  Glass  win 
dows  were  then  so  valuable  that  when  a  country  gentleman  went  to 
town  for  a  length  of  time  he  took  the  sashes  out  of  their  frames  and 
packed  them  carefully  away.  Beds  in  that  day  for  the  poor  were  of 
straw,  with  fagots  for  pillows.  Fingers  were  the  only  forks.  Me 
chanics  lived  largely  on  oat  and  rye  bread.  Millers  who  stole  grain 
and  dishonest  tradesmen  generally  were  fastened  in  carts  and  driven 
through  the  town  to  be  hooted  at  and  pelted  by  the  populace. 


134  THE  ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

the  houses  were  built  so  as  to  face  exactly  south.  The 
inmates  knew  that  it  was  noon  when  the  sun  shone 

squarely  in. 

Kitchen  and  Best 
Room.  —  The  kitchen, 
with  its  cheerful  fire,  its 
low  ceiling  with  bare 
joists,  from  which  hung 
bunches  of  herbs  and 
strings  of  drying  ap- 

PleS>  the    Occasional   tall 

wooden  clock,  dresser 

set  with  pewter  dishes,  spinning-wheel,  and  occasionally  a 
loom  for  weaving,  was  the  living-room  of  the  house,  in 
which  cooking,  eating,  working,  and  social  converse  went 
on. 

The  best  room  was  used  for  state  occasions,  and  usually 
was  kept  in  almost  total  darkness.  A  sanded  floor,  traced 
in  quaint  designs,  shining  brass  andirons,  high  brass  candle 
sticks,  a  few  books  and  family  portraits,  made  up  the  usual 
ornaments  of  the  room.  For  light,  home-made  tallow  can 
dles  were  employed.  In  the  kitchen  the  blazing  logs  served 
for  illumination. 

Houses  of  the  Wealthy. — In  and  near  the  towns  and 
on  the  few  great  estates  there  were  many  large  and  costly 
houses,  on  some  of  which  great  sums  were  spent.  These 
were  of  brick  or  stone,  richly  panelled  within,  wainscoted 
with  mahogany  or  other  hard  woods,  expensively  furnished, 
hung  with  pictures,  and  adorned  with  tapestry  instead  of 
the  later  method  of  plaster  and  wall-paper.  It  must,  how 
ever,  be  said  that  the  houses  of  that  period  were  very  cold 
in  winter,  being  heated  only  by  a  wood  fire  on  the  hearth. 
We  hear  complaints  of  ink  freezing  in  the  bottle,  and  even 


CUSTOMS  AND   CONDITIONS  OF  THE   COLONIES.       135 

on  the  pen  while  writing.  Certainly  our  ancestors  pos 
sessed  a  very  moderate  standard  of  comfort. 

Food. — Food  was  of  little  variety.  Fresh  meat  was  rare. 
Salt  pork,  beef,  and  fish  formed  the  winter  stand-by.  To 
these  were  added  rye  and  Indian  bread  and  cakes,  wheat 
being  too  dear  for  general  use.  Porridge  for  breakfast  and 
mush  for  supper  were  common  dishes.  Vegetables  were 
few.  Tomatoes,  now  so  common,  were  grown  in  gardens 
under  the  name  of  love-apples,  and  believed  to  be  poison 
ous.  Ice  was  unused,  the  well  or  spring-house  serving  for 
cooling  purposes.  Tea  and  coffee  were  little  used. 

Dress. — The  Puritans  dressed  quite  plainly,  and  very 
differently  from  what  we  do  now.  The  Puritan  gentlemen 
wore  knee-breeches  and  short  cloaks,  with  ruffs  about 
their  necks  and  steeple-crowned  hats.  They  had  rich 
belts,  gold  and  silver  buttons,  and  high  boots  rolled  over  at 
the  top  for  great  occasions.  The  women  wore  homespun 
dresses  during  the  week,  and  silk  hoods,  lace  handker 
chiefs,  and  other  finery  on  Sunday. 

The  poorer  classes  dressed  very  plainly.  Workingmen 
wore  breeches  of  leather  or  coarse  cloth,  jackets  of  red  or 
green  baize,  and  leather  aprons.  On  Sunday  their  clothes 
were  better,  but  of  the  same  character  of  material.  On  the 
contrary,  lace  ruffles  at  the  wrist,  gold  lace  on  the  silk  or 
velvet  coat,  a  gold-headed  cane,  and  a  gold  or  silver  snuff 
box  were  necessities  of  the  fashionable  gentleman's  best 
attire. 

Laws  about  Dress. — The  law  forbade  any  one  to  wear 
clothes  of  a  character  beyond  his  or  her  rank  in  life.  In 
1640  the  constables  of  every  town  were  bidden  to  observe 
all  who  dressed  beyond  their  condition  and  order  them  to 
appear  in  court.  It  seems  strange  in  these  days  of  per 
fect  liberty  in  dress  that  there  was  a  time  in  this  country 


136 


THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 


COSTUMES  OF  THE  PURITANS. 


wnen  people  were  punished  for  dressing  beyond  their 
means.  We  are  told  of  one  Alice  Flynt,  who  was  found 
wearing  a  silk  hood,  and  was  required 
to  show  that  she  was  worth  the  neces 
sary  two  hundred  pounds.  No  one 
having  less  than  this  was  permitted  to 
wear  "  gold  or  silver  lace,  or  any  lace 
over  2s.  per  yard." 

Distinctions  of  Rank. — The  social 
grades  then  prevalent  in  England  were 
manifested  in  this  country,  decidedly 
so  in  the  South,  and  to  some  extent  in 
democratic  New  England.  Official 
positions  were  held  by  a  few  families, 
and  were  transmitted  from  father  to 
son.  The  distinctions  between  rich  and  poor  were  not  con 
fined  to  dress.  There  were  no  orders  of  nobility,  but  the 
titles  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.,  now  so  common,  were  then  given 
only  to  clergymen  and  magistrates,  and  to  people  high  in 
position.  All  others,  except  servants,  were  addressed  as 
Good-man,  or  Good-wife.  Few  were  honored  with  the  title 
of  Esquire. 

Amusements  and  Drinking-  Habits. — Amusements  were 
very  simple.  Dancing  and  card-playing  were  forbidden, 
and  there  was  little  music.  Such  a  thing  as  a  theatre  was 
unknown.  Hunting,  fishing,  and  out-door  sports  formed  the 
staple  of  enjoyments. 

In  later  days  dancing  and  feasting  became  more  common, 
and  the  list  of  amusements  included  quiltings,  huskings, 
spinning-bees,  sleigh-rides,  picnics,  and  parties  of  various 
kinds.  The  holidays  were  thanksgiving  and  fast  days,  elec 
tion  and  training  days,  all,  except  fast  day,  being  largely 
given  up  to  athletic  or  other  out-door  sports.  Weddings 


CUSTOMS  AND   CONDITIONS   OF  THE   COLONIES.       137 

were  made  times  of  feasting  and  enjoyment,  and  even 
funerals  were  followed  by  elaborate  feasts.  In  time  Thanks 
giving-day  became  the  great  day  for  family  gatherings  and 
feasts. 

Liquor  Selling. — In  early  New  England  only  men  of  good 
character  could  keep  a  tavern,  and  they  were  forbidden  to 
sell  liquor  to  habitual  drunkards.  In  early  Connecticut  no 
one  under  twenty  was  allowed  to  use  tobacco,  and  none  to 
use  it  more  than  once  a  day.  These  laws,  however,  proved 
ineffective,  and  drinking  became  common.  Much  beer  and 
cider  were  drunk,  and  the  importation  of  rum  from  the 
West  Indies  became  a  thriving  business. 

Penalties  for  Law-Breaking-. — The  laws  were  severe  and 
the  penalties  cruel.  Imprisonment  for  debt  was  common. 
The  stocks  and  pillory  were  freely  used  for  small  offences, 
men  having  their  feet,  hands,  or  neck  fastened  in  wooden 
frames  and  being  thus  exposed  to  public  scorn.  It  was  the 
custom  to  make  the  offence  and  punishment  as  public  as 
possible.  A  common  scold  was  sometimes  gagged  and 
seated  before  her  door.  In  Virginia  and  some  other  colo 
nies  there  were  ducking-stools,  and  the  scold  was  dipped 
into  a  stream  or  pond. 

The  whipping-post  was  in  frequent  requisition,  often  for 
offences  which  now  are  not  considered  crimes.  An  offender 
might  be  made  to  stand  on  a  stool  in  church  with  the  name 
of  his  misdemeanor  displayed  on  his  breast.  Among  the 
common  punishments  were  cropping  or  boring  the  ears  and 
branding  with  a  hot  iron.  At  one  time  there  were  twelve 
offences  in  New  England  punishable  with  death.  In  Virginia 
there  were  seventeen.1 


1  Respect  for  parents  was  absolutely  required.     In  the  strict  letter 
of  the  law  disrespect  to  parents  might  be  punished  with  death.     One 


138  THE   ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

Voting- ;  Military  Service. — In  town-meeting  voting  was 
done  with  corn  and  beans.  A  grain  of  corn  meant  a  vote 
in  favor  of  the  measure ;  a  bean  was  a  vote  against  it. 

Every  man  and  boy  past  the  age  of  sixteen  had  to  drill  as 
a  soldier.  Matchlocks — or  guns  fired  with  a  slow-burning 
match — were  the  only  kind  in  use.  Long  afterward  a  flint 
and  steel  were  employed  to  make  a  spark  and  set  fire  to  the 
powder.  Each  soldier  carried  a  rest,  on  which  he  placed 
the  end  of  his  heavy  gun  when  taking  aim.  Some  wore 
helmets  and  breastplates,  others  coats  quilted  with  cotton 
wool,  through  which  an  Indian  arrow  would  not  pass.  No 
farmer  went  into  his  field  to  work  without  his  musket.  The 
colonists  were  always  on  guard  against  the  savage  foe. 

THE   MIDDLE  COLONIES. 

Dutch  New  York. — Much  of  what  has  been  said  of  New 
England  will  apply  to  the  other  colonies,  but  each  had  cus 
toms  peculiar  to  itself.  The  Dutch  houses  in  New  York 
were  built  like  those  of  Holland,  of  wood  or  small  black  and 
yellow  bricks,  with  gable  ends  facing  the  street.  They  were 
generally  one  and  a  half  stories  high.  The  front  door  had 
a  great  brass  knocker,  kept  highly  polished,  while  scrubbing 
and  scouring  went  steadily  on.  The  floors  were  covered 
with  white  sand,  which  was  swept  into  lines  and  patterns 
with  the  brooms.  Outside  was  the  "  stoop,"  or  fixed  bench, 
a  favorite  evening  seat.  Each  family  had  its  cow,  pasturing 
in  a  common  pasture,  but  making  its  way  home  with  tink 
ling  bell  at  the  milking-hour. 

John  Porter,  of  Salem,  who  abused  his  father,  was  made  to  stand 
on  the  gallows  with  a  rope  around  his  neck,  and  was  soundly  whipped, 
fined,  and  imprisoned.  He  was  saved  from  death  only  by  the  en 
treaties  of  his  mother.  Another  offender  was  chained  to  a  post  and 
forced  by  the  whip  to  work  for  the  benefit  of  the  public. 


CUSTOMS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  COLONIES.      139 

Within  the  Houses. — The  great  open  fireplaces  were 
ornamented  with  colored  tiles.  In  the  cupboards  were 
much  old  silver  and  china.  The  whirr  of  the  spinning- 
wheel  formed  the  household  music,  and  each  mansion  had 


SCENE  IN  NEW  AMSTERDAM. 

its  huge  chest  of  linen  woven  by  the  women.  On  the  great 
manors  of  the  patroons  were  mansions  that  vied  in  costli 
ness  and  elegance  with  the  best  of  those  in  Europe  at  that 
day. 

Modes  of  Life. — The  Dutch  took  life  easy.  They  were 
fond  of  good  eating  and  drinking  and  enjoyed  playing  at 
various  games.  Many  of  our  present  customs  came  from 
them.  New-Year  visiting  is  one  of  these.  The  Santa  Glaus 
celebration  at  Christmas  is  another.  A  third  is  the  practice 
of  coloring  eggs  at  Easter.  We  also  owe  our  doughnuts, 
crullers,  and  New-Year  cookies  to  the  Dutch  housewives. 

Dress. — The  dress  was  very  peculiar.     The  men  wore 


140  THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 

several  pairs  of  knee-breeches,  one  over  the  other,  which 
gave  them  a  very  baggy  appearance.  Large  buckles  were 
worn  at  the  knees  and  on  the  shoes, 
and  their  coats  had  great  brass  or 
silver  buttons.  The  women  wore  a 
number  of  short  and  bright-colored 
skirts,  with  stockings  of  various  colors, 
and  high-heeled  shoes.  The  head 
dress  was  a  white  muslin  cap. 

Life  in  Philadelphia.  —  Philadel 
phia  was  the  largest  city  in  America 
until  long  after  the  Revolution.  It 


DUTSEITLKB8. 

streets  crossing  each  other  at  right 

angles,  like  those  of  ancient  Babylon.  There  were  many 
comfortable  dwellings,  usually  two  stories  high,  the  streets 
were  shaded  with  trees,  and  there  were  gardens  and  orchards 
around  the  houses.  It  was  thus  a  "  fair  greene  country 
town,"  as  Penn  wished  to  make  it.  Some  of  the  sidewalks 
were  paved  with  flag-stones,  then  very  rare  in  cities. 

The  city  was  noted  for  the  abundance  of  its  fruits.  A 
German  traveller  remarked  that  the  people  fed  their  pigs 
on  peaches,  and  cared  less  for  the  finest  fruits  than  the  peo 
ple  of  Europe  did  for  their  turnips. 

Shops.  —  The  ordinary  dwelling-houses  served  for  shops, 
with  something  hung  over  the  door  to  show  what  was  for 
sale  within.  A  basket,  a  beehive,  a  wooden  anchor,  or  some 
such  object  was  all  the  sign  needed.  The  people  were 
very  quiet  and  sober,  and  did  not  care  much  for  amuse 
ments. 

People  of  Many  Nations.  —  The  population  of  the  city 
and  colony  included  people  of  various  nations,  such  as 
English,  Swedes,  Dutch,  Germans,  Scotch,  and  Irish.  There 


CUSTOMS  AND   CONDITIONS   OF  THE   COLONIES.       141 


were  thus  several  languages  spoken,  and  customs  derived 
from  different  nations  were  introduced. 

THE  SOUTHERN   COLONIES. 

Plantation  Life. — In  the  South  large  plantations  replaced 
the  populous  towns  and  villages  of  the  North,  and  the  modes 
of  life  differed  accordingly.  The  planters,  as  they  grew 
wealthy  from  the  sale  of  their  crops  of  tobacco,  built  them 
selves  large  mansions,  handsomely  furnished  and  orna 
mented.  Within  were  broad  stairways,  and  mantels  and 
wainscots  often  of  richly  carved  mahogany.  The  furniture 
was  of  solid  oak  and  mahogany.  Gold  and  silver  plate  often 
was  visible  in  abundance  on  the  sideboards,  there  being 
frequently  an  ostentatious  display  of  wealth. 

Each  mansion  had  its  numerous  household  of  negro  ser 
vants.     The  field  hands  had  their  separate  quarters,  each 
hut  with  its  garden  and  poultry-yard.     Most  of  the  articles 
needed   on   the    estate 
were     made     by     the 
slaves. 

Lavish  Mode  of  Life. 
— The  great  planters 
lived  like  lords,  keeping- 
stables  of  fine  horses 
and  parks  of  hunting- 
dogs,  while  they  went 
to  church  or  made  vis 
its  in  great  coaches 
drawn  by  six  horses. 
There  were  negro  ser 
vants  ready  to  do  all  labor,  so  that  it  was  considered  de 
grading  for  a  white  man  to  work. 

Hospitality. — The   warmest   hospitality  was   displayed. 


COLONIAL  FIREPLACE. 


142 


THE  ERA  OF  SETTLEMENT. 


Life  in  those  great  mansions  was  often  dull,  and  a  traveller 
was  a  prize.  News  journeyed  slowly,  and  important  events 
were  often  learned  only  from  some  loquacious  guest.  A 
servant  was  sometimes  posted  on  the  high-road  to  look  out 
for  any  respectable  traveller  on  horseback.  When  one  such 
appeared,  the  bowing  and  smiling  negro  would  invite  him  to 
stop  and  spend  the  night  at  his  master's  mansion.  Arrived 
there,  he  would  be  treated  to  the  best  in  the  house,  and 
perhaps  have  a  hunt  or  other  sport  got  up  for  his  enjoy 
ment  the  next  day.  This  hospitality  had  one  bad  effect, 
the  inns  were  miserable.  The  planters  robbed  the  land 
lords  of  all  profitable  custom. 

Dress, — Full  dress  here  embraced 
three-cornered  cocked  hats,  long  vel 
vet  coats,  with  lace  ruffles  at  the 
wrist,  knee-breeches,  white  silk  stock 
ings,  and  shoes  with  silver  buttons. 
The  hair  was  worn  long,  powdered 
with  white,  and  tied  in  a  twist  or 
queue  with  a  black  silk  ribbon.  La 
dies  also  powdered  their  hair,  and 
dressed  in  rich  brocades  or  thick  silks. 
Life  moved  in  a  stately,  quiet  way, 
unlike  the  present  rush.  The  plant 
ers,  having  little  to  do  at  home, 
spent  much  of  their  time  in  the  performance  of  political 
duties. 

The  Poor  Whites. — It  must  not  be  imagined.,  however, 
that  this  class  constituted  the  total  population.  There  were 
large  numbers  of  what  were  afterward  known  as  poor 
whites,  largely  the  descendants  of  indentured  servants. 
Many  of  these  lived  in  a  state  of  degradation,  vice,  and 
ignorance.  There  was  also  a  middle  class  of  merchants  and 


COSTUME  OF  ENGLISH  SETTLERS. 
(Genteel  Class.)         * 


CUSTOMS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  COLONIES.      143 

traders  in  the  towns.  South  Carolina,  however,  possessed 
only  two  well-defined  classes,  planters  and  slaves. 

The  Lower  Colonies. — In  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia 
tobacco  was  replaced  by  other  crops,  but  the  life  of  the 
planter  was  much  the  same  as  in  Virginia.  In  all  these 
colonies  gambling  was  very  common,  and  constituted  one 
of  the  main  features  of  the  horse-racing  and  cock-fighting 
which  were  the  favorite  amusements  of  the  people. 

Back  in  the  country,  toward  the  mountains,  the  people 
were  poor,  the  land  being  divided  into  small  farms,  while 
many  of  the  inhabitants  spent  their  time  in  hunting.  The 
settlers  lived  far  apart,  and  their  only  roads  were  paths. 
In  the  woods  these  were  indicated  by  notches  cut  in  the 
trees.  This  was  called  "  blazing  the  way." 

Other  Colonial  Customs. — Lighting  was  poorly  performed 
in  old  colony  days.  Lamps  were  almost  unknown.  The 
poorest  people  burned  a  wick  in  a  vessel  of  grease  or  used 
torches  of  pitch-pine.  Others  made  candles  of  tallow.  In 
the  South  the  wax  of  the  candle-berry  was  often  used  for 
this  purpose.  The  streets  of  large  towns  were  poorly  lighted 
at  night  with  dim  lanterns.  Stoves  for  heating  were  hardly 
known  until  a  late  period.  Cooking-stoves  were  unknown. 
Wood  was  the  only  fuel  used  in  houses.  Children,  and  often 
their  parents,  went  barefoot  in  summer.  In  the  backwoods 
the  dress  was  a  loose  hunting-shirt  of  deerskin  or  homespun, 
with  buckskin  leggings,  moccasins,  and  fur  cap.  Workmen 
wore  leather  breeches  until  after  the  Revolution. 

Drinking  Habits. — Drunkenness  in  time  became  a  crying 
evil  in  the  colonies,  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors  becoming 
almost  universal.  Whiskey  and  rum  were  very  freely  drunk, 
most  men  taking  five  or  six  glasses  a  day,  many  much  more. 
Nothing  of  importance  could  be  transacted  without  drink. 
A  jug  of  whiskey  was  supplied  to  the  hands  getting  in  hay. 


144  THE  ERA   OF  SETTLEMENT. 

In  raising  the  timbers  of  a  house  or  barn  a  large  supply  of 
liquor  was  deemed  necessary.  No  bargain  could  be  made 
without  a  dram.  All  classes  drank,  even  the  clergy.  The 
sideboard  with  its  decanter  and  glasses  was  looked  upon  as 
necessary  furniture.  This  continued  until  1826,  when  the 
temperance  movement  first  actively  began.  Since  then  there 
has  been  a  remarkable  change  in  drinking  habits. 


IV. 
THE  ERA  OF  COLONIAL  WARS. 


i.  KING   WILLIAM'S   WAR    (1689-1697). 

First  Contests  of  the  Whites. — During  the  early  days 
of  the  occupation  of  America  the  colonists  had  mainly  the 
savages  to  deal  with  as  foes.  The  only  contests  between 
the  whites  were  that  between  the  Spaniards  and  French  in 
Florida,  already  described,  an  attack  on  the  French  at 
Mount  Desert,  Maine,  and  Port  Royal,  Acadia,  by  Captain 
Argall,  of  Virginia,  in  1614,  and  the  capture  of  Quebec  by 
Captain  Kirk  in  1629,  during  the  war  of  Charles  I.  with 
France.  All  these  produced  no  effect,  Quebec  being  soon 
returned,  and  the  situation  of  affairs  left  unchanged.  Peace 
reigned  from  1629  to  1689,  when  a  struggle  began  which 
was  to  continue  at  intervals  for  over  seventy  years,  and  end 
in  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  America. 

A  Turning-Point. — The  year  1689  was  an  important 
turning-point  in  American  history.  With  it  began  the  long 
struggle  between  England  and  France  for  colonial  dominion. 
It  inaugurated  an  era  of  war  which  continued,  with  inter 
missions,  for  nearly  a  century,  and  ended  in  the  indepen 
dence  of  the  United  States  of  America  and  the  formation 
of  a  new  government  in  1789,  just  a  century  later.  We 
have  hitherto  had  to  deal  with  the  story  of  the  thirteen 
colonies  separately.  We  must  now  deal  with  them  as  one, 

10  145 


146  THE   ERA   OF   COLONIAL  WARS. 

and  shall  have  to  speak  of  events  that  took  place  at  the 
same  time  as  many  of  those  already  described. 

War  in  Europe. — In  1689  a  war  broke  out  in  Europe 
between  England  and  France.  It  continued  until  1697. 
William  III.  was  then  on  the  throne  of  England,  for  which 
reason  this  contest  became  known  in  America  as  King 
William's  War.  The  hostility  in  Europe  extended  to 
America,  and  resulted  in  frightful  massacres  by  the  Indian 
allies  of  France. 

Frontenac  and  the  Iroquois. — Louis  XIV.  of  France  sent 
over  Count  Frontenac  as  governor  of  Canada,  with  orders 
to  descend  the  Hudson  and  conquer  New  York.  The 
danger  was  great,  for  New  York  was  then  distracted  by  the 
Leisler  rebellion ;  but  the  invasion  was  prevented  by  the 
Iroquois,  or  Five  Nations,  who  were  allies  of  the  English, 
and  attacked  Montreal  in  1689  with  such  fierceness  as  to 
keep  the  French  at  home.  Frontenac's  hopes  of  conquest 
were  ruined  by  this  Indian  assault.  In  revenge  he  invaded 
the  country  of  the  Five  Nations  in  1693,  and  for  four  years 
ravaged  it  so  remorselessly  that  the  savages  were  forced  in 
the  end  to  beg  for  mercy.  The  Iroquois  never  fully  recov 
ered  from  this  blow. 

Indian  Massacres. — The  war  on  the  side  of  the  French 
was  confined  to  Indian  raids  on  the  British  settlements. 
In  February,  1690,  a  party  of  French  and  Indians  surprised 
the  village  of  Schenectady,  New  York,  with  a  midnight 
attack,  and  slaughtered  most  of  the  inhabitants.  A  few 
escaped  in  their  night-clothes,  and  made  their  way  through 
the  freezing  winter  air  to  Albany,  sixteen  miles  away.  . 

During  the  following  years  a  number  of  other  villages,  in 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Massachusetts,  met  with  a 
similar  fate.  At  Durham,  New  Hampshire,  in  1694,  more 
than  a  hundred  people  were  killed,  many  of  them  being 


KING  WILLIAM'S  WAR.  147 

burned  alive.  The  last  of  these  assaults  was  one  made  on 
Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  in  1697.1  But  all  along  the  bor 
der  midnight  attacks,  frightful  massacres,  horrible  scenes 
of  torture,  and  the  dragging  of  women  and  children  into 
captivity  were  frequent  occurrences  of  this  terrible  war. 
It  was  wholesale  murder,  not  war,  for  such  ruthless  slaugh 
ter  of  frontier  settlers  could  be  of  no  possible  service  to 
France. 

English  Reprisal. — The  English  colonists  did  not  bear 
this  infliction  without  an  effort  at  revenge.  In  1690  a 
congress  of  commissioners  from  several  of  the  colonies  met 
at  New  York  to  arrange  some  plan  of  attack  and  defence. 
It  was  determined  to  attack  the  French  by  land  and  sea. 

A  force  of  two  thousand  Massachusetts  militia,  under  Sir 


1  The  attack  on  Haverhill  was  followed  by  an  event  which  has 
become  famous  in  historical  romance.  A  farmer  named  Dustin  was 
working  in  the  field  with  his  seven  children  about  him,  when  he 
heard  the  dreadful  war-whoop  of  the  foe.  Seizing  his  gun,  he  saw 
that  the  Indians  were  between  him  and  his  house,  so  that  he  was 
obliged  to  abandon  his  wife  to  her  fate.  Telling  the  children  to  run 
on,  he  kept  the  savages  at  bay  with  his  gun,  and  managed  to  reach  a 
fortified  house.  Mrs.  Dustin,  who  was  forced  to  rise  from  a  sick-bed, 
and  her  nurse  were  taken  prisoners.  With  the  party  was  a  captive 
boy  who  understood  the  Indian  tongue,  and  learned  from  a  talkative 
Indian  how  to  kill  and  scalp  a  foe.  Mrs.  Dustin  determined  to  make 
an  effort  to  escape.  There  were  in  the  party  nine  men  and  boys  and 
three  women.  One  night,  while  they  were  asleep  by  their  camp-fire 
on  an  island  in  the  Merrimac,  she  and  her  two  companions  quietly 
arose,  and,  each  taking  a  tomahawk,  in  a  few  seconds  crushed  in  the 
skulls  of  ten  of  their  sleeping  foes.  Only  one  woman  and  a  young  boy 
escaped.  Scalping  the  dead  men,  that  they  might  prove  their  story, 
the  brave  fugitives  made  their  way  home  down  a  hundred  miles  of  the 
stream. .  They  had  been  given  up  for  lost.  Mrs.  Dustin  was  paid  a 
bounty  of  fifty  pounds  for  the  ten  scalps,  and  in  honor  of  her  exploit 
received  a  present  from  the  governor  of  Maryland. 


148  THE  ERA  OF  COLONIAL  WARS. 

William  Phipps,  sailed  to  Port  Royal,  which  it  captured,  and 
with  it  the  province  of  Acadia.  It  then  sailed  up  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  besieged  Quebec,  while  at  the  same  time  a 
force  of  New  York  and  Connecticut  troops  marched  over 
land  upon  Montreal.  Both  these  expeditions  failed,  the 
land  one  never  even  reaching  Canada. 

End  of  the  War. — Hostilities  ended  in  1697,  and  by  the 
terms  of  peace  Acadia  was  restored  to  France,  greatly  to 
the  displeasure  of  the  Bostonians,  who  had  equipped  the 
expedition  at  great  expense,  and  did  not  relish  being  de 
prived  of  the  fruit  of  their  enterprise.1 

2.  QUEEN    ANNE'S   WAR   (1702-1713). 

Hostilities  Resumed. — The  peace  that  followed  was  of 
short  duration.  In  1701  war  was  resumed  in  Europe,  and 
began  again  in  America  in  the  following  year.  It  lasted 
till  1713.  As  William  III.  died  in  1702,  this  became  known 
as  Queen  Anne's  War,  after  the  name  of  his  successor.  As 
before,  on  the  French  side  it  was  a  war  of  massacre.  Two 
frightful  scenes  of  slaughter  took  place,  one  at  Deerfield, 
Massachusetts,  where  many  were  slain  and  more  than  a 
hundred  carried  into  captivity ;  the  other  at  Haverhill, 
which  was  again  visited  with  the  horrors  of  massacre. 

Acadia  again  Conquered. — In  reprisal,  an  expedition  of 
British  and  colonial  troops  was  sent  against  Acadia,  which 
was  once  more  conquered,  while  Port  Royal  a  second  time 
fell  into  English  hands.  Its  name  was  now  changed  to 
Annapolis,  in  honor  of  the  queen.  This  name  it  still  retains. 
An  expedition  almost  seven  thousand  strong  proceeded 
against  Quebec,  but  was  checked  by  a  storm  at  the  mouth 

1  It  was  during  this  war  that  the  superstitious  delusion,  known  as 
the  Salem  witchcraft,  broke  out  in  Massachusetts. 


KING  GEORGE'S  WAR.  149 

of  the  St.  Lawrence,  that  destroyed  many  of  the  ships  and 
drowned  a  thousand  men. 

War  with  Florida. — During  this  war  Spain  was  in  alli 
ance  with  France,  and  the  theatre  of  conflict  was  extended 
to  the  South.  In  1702  an  expedition  from  South  Carolina 
took  and  plundered  St.  Augustine,  and  in  the  folloAving  year 
the  Appalachian  Indians  of  Georgia,  allies  of  the  Spaniards, 
were  severely  punished.  A  campaign  of  reprisal  was  made 
in  1706,  a  squadron  of  Spanish  and  French  vessels  ap 
pearing  before  Charleston,  on  which  an  attack  was  made. 
The  assailants  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss. 

An  Indian  Invasion. — A  few  years  later  (1715)  a  general 
confederation  of  the  Indian  tribes  was  formed,  with  the 
design  of  sweeping  all  the  whites  of  Carolina  from  the  land. 
Their  army,  seven  thousand  strong,  was  met  by  Governor 
Craven,  of  South  Carolina,  at  the  head  of  twelve  hundred 
men,  and  completely  defeated. 

Acadia  Retained. — The  English  derived  one  advantage 
from  this  war.  When  peace  was  made,  the  part  of  Acadia 
which  they  had  taken  was  ceded  to  them.  It  has  since  then 
been  known  as  Nova  Scotia.  Their  claim  to  the  possession 
of  Newfoundland  and  the  rich  fur  regions  on  Hudson  Bay 
was  also  acknowledged. 

3.    KING  GEORGE'S   WAR    (1744-1748). 

Events  during  the  Peace. — Thirty  years  of  peace  fol 
lowed.  The  French  made  use  of  it  by  adding  to  their  line 
of  fortified  posts  in  the  interior  and  strengthening  their  hold 
upon  the  continent.  In  the  South  the  settlement  of  New 
Orleans  was  made  in  this  interval.  The  only  conflict  was 
at  the  French  settlement  of  Norridgewock,  in  Maine.  The 
French  there  had  instigated  the  Abenaki  Indians  to  attack 
the  New  England  settlements.  In  consequence,  Norridge- 


150  THE   ERA   OF   COLONIAL  WARS. 

wock  was  attacked  in  1724  by  a  force  of  militia  and 
destroyed. 

Fresh  Hostilities. — Again,  in  1743,  France  and  England 
met  in  war.  As  before,  this  contest  was  reflected  in  Amer 
ica,  where  it  was  known  as  King  George's  War,  after  George 
II.,  then  King  of  England.  It  continued  five  years  in  Eu 
rope,  but  in  America  was  attended  by  only  a  single  event 
of  importance,  the  capture  of  Louisburg. 

Assault  on  Louisburg. — Louisburg,  a  fortified  town  on 
Cape  Breton  Island,  was  so  strong  that  it  was  looked  upon 
as  the  Gibraltar  of  America.  France  had  spent  more  than 
five  million  dollars  on  its  fortifications,  and  believed  it  to  be 
capable  of  defying  any  assault.  Yet  it  was  taken  after  a 
siege  of  six  weeks,  on  June  17,  1745,  by  four  thousand  New 
England  militia,  aided  by  four  British  war  vessels.  There 
was  nothing  scientific  about  the  siege,  yet  the  provincial 
troops  displayed  remarkable  dash  and  bravery,  and  the 
French  commander  utter  incompetence.1 

Results  of  the  Victory. — The  capture  of  Louisburg  by 
an  army  of  provincials,  untrained  in  war,  filled  all  Europe 
with  astonishment  and  England  and  America  with  delight. 
William  Pepperell,  the  merchant  who  led  the  American 
forces,  was  made  a  baronet  by  the  king.  In  the  following 
year  a  powerful  expedition  sailed  from  France  for  the 
reconquest  of  the  fortress.  But  storms  injured  the  fleet 
and  disease  decimated  the  troops,  and  the  enterprise  was 
abandoned. 


1  The  drums  that  beat  their  triumphal  march  as  the  New  Englanders 
marched  into  Louisburg,  June  17,  1745,  were  the  same  that  beat  on 
Bunker  Hill  during  the  memorable  affair  of  June  17,  1775,  exactly 
thirty  years  afterward,  in  which  the  militia  of  New  England  once  more 
showed  their  fighting  spirit. 


KING  GEORGE'S  WAR.  151 

Louisburg-  Restored  to  France. — To  the  utter  disgust 
of  the  colonists,  however,  when  peace  was  made,  Louisburg 
was  restored  to  Frer.ce.  The  fortress  they  had  so  gallantly 
captured  was  traded  away  for  a  city  in  India  of  which  they 
had  scarcely  ever  heard. 

War  with  Florida. — King  George's  war  was  preceded  by 
a  war  between  England  and  Spain,  which  broke  out  in  1739, 
and  was  attended  by  some  interesting  events  in  the  South. 
Oglethorpe,  the  proprietary  of  Georgia,  invaded  Florida  in 
the  summer  of  1740,  and  laid  siege  to  St.  Augustine.  He 
failed  from  want  of  cannon,  and  was  obliged  to  withdraw. 

Georgia  Invaded. — The  Spaniards  retaliated  in  1742, 
invading  Georgia  with  a  large  fleet  and  a  powerful  army. 
They  landed  on  St.  Simon's  Island,  proposing  to  take  Ogle- 
thorpe's  forts  and  conquer  or  desolate  the  colony.  They 
were  met  by  a  much  smaller  force,  but  were  defeated  by 
a  shrewd  stratagem  which  caused  them  to  withdraw  in 
panic  flight.  In  the  following  year  Oglethorpe  repeated  his 
attack  on  St.  Augustine.  As  before,  he  failed  to  take  it, 
but  his  vigor  put  an  end  to  Spanish  invasions. 

Results  of  the  "Wars. — The  wars  described,  whose  hos 
tilities  extended  through  twenty-five  -years,  had  no  proper 
reason  for  existence  in  America  at  all.  They  arose  from  no 
American  need  and  settled  nothing.  The  colonists  suffered 
heavily  in  life  and  wealth,  while  their  only  gain  was  the 
peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  control  of  the  Newfound 
land  fisheries.  They  had  learned,  however,  two  important 
lessons :  that  they  must  protect  themselves,  since  England 
was  using  them  for  her  own  ends,  and  that  their  troops 
could  safely  be  trusted  to  fight  side  by  side  with  British 
regulars  and  show  equal  courage  and  efficiency.  The  time 
was  at  hand  when  these  useful  lessons  were  to  be  applied. 


152 


THE   ERA  OF  COLONIAL  WARS. 


4.  THE   FRENCH   AND   INDIAN    WAR  (1754-1763). 

French  Enterprise. — The  peace  in  America  was  brief. 
A  home  cause  of  conflict  was  arising.  Colonial  jealousy 
between  the  French  and  English  was  soon  to  break  out  into 
colonial  hostility.  For  years  the  French  had  been  pushing 
their  way  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  building  forts  as 


ENGLISH  TERRITORY  BEFORE  THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR. 

they  went,  until  they  had  more  than  sixty  military  posts 
along  their  extended  line  of  lake  and  river. 

The  English  Keep  on  the  Seaboard. — Meanwhile,  the 
English  colonies  were  filling  up  with  settlers  far  more 
rapidly  than  the  French,  but  these  clung  to  the  seaboard 
region  and  made  little  effort  to  penetrate  the  interior. 

The  Alleghany  Barrier. — This  was  not  due  to  lack  of 
enterprise.  It  arose  from  the  difficulty  of  the  situation. 
While  the  French  were  attracted  onward  by  the  splendid 
water-ways  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  Valley, 


THE  FRENCH   AND  INDIAN  WAR.  153 

the  English  faced  an  unbroken  wilderness,  in  whose  rear 
lay  a  broad  backbone  of  mountains,  presenting  few  passes, 
and  to  be  crossed  only  with  great  difficulty.  The  less 
elevated  country  in  the  north  was  closed  by  the  warlike 
Iroquois,  friendly,  but  jealous  of  intrusion.  As  a  result, 
while  English  traders  and  hunters  made  their  way  to  some 
extent  into  the  wilderness,  the  bulk  of  the  settlers  were  by 
no  means  ready  to  follow. 

A  Change  of  Purpose. — The  time,  however,  for  a  change 
had  come.  The  people  of  the  middle  colonies  in  particular 
were  considering  the  occupation  of  the  broad  lands  beyond 
the  mountains,  of  which  pioneer  prospectors  brought  in 
viting  tales.  In  1748  a  company  was  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  settlements  in  this  western  country,  in 
which  the  king  had  granted  them  a  tract  of  land  of  half  a 
million  acres  in  area.  Two  of  the  stockholders  of  this  Ohio 
Company,  as  it  was  named,  were  Lawrence  and  Augustine 
Washington,  brothers  of  the  afterward  famous  George  Wash 
ington. 

The  Owners  of  the  Land. — Both  France  and  England 
claimed  this  unsettled  and  untrodden  region.  France  laid 
claim  to  it  by  right  of  discovery.  Their  explorer,  La  Salle, 
had  first  reached  the  Ohio  River.  The  English  claim  was 
based  on  the  discoveries  of  the  Cabots,  under  which  charters 
were  granted  reaching  to  the  Pacific.1  The  real  owners,  the 
Indians,  were  left  out  of  the  account,  though  with  this  indif 
ference  to  their  rights  they  were  far  from  pleased.  "  Where 
is  the  land  of  the  Indian?"  they  asked.  "The  English 


1  The  English  also  claimed  that  they  had  been  granted  the  Ohio 
Valley  region  by  the  Iroquois  Indians,  who  had  captured  it  many  years 
before.  This  claim  had  as  little  substantial  foundation  as  most  of  the 
claims  to  American  land. 


154  THE  ERA  OF  COLONIAL  WARS. 

claim  all  on  one  side  of  the  river,  the  French  all  on  the 
other.  Where  does  our  land  lie  ?" 

French  Ports. — As  this  question  could  not  be  answered, 
it  was  ignored,  and  the  invasion  went  on.  The  Ohio  Com 
pany  sent  out  surveyors  in  1750,  who  extended  their  survey 
as  far  as  the  site  of  Louisville.  When  word  of  this  came  to 
the  French  they  were  alarmed.  Unless  active  steps  were 
taken  they  would  lose  the  Ohio  country.  In  1753  they 
began  an  active  movement  toward  the  contested  territory. 
A  fort  was  built  at  Presque  Isle,  on  Lake  Erie,  one  at  Le 
Boeuf  (now  Waterford),  Pennsylvania,  and  a  third  at  Ve- 
nango  (now  Franklin),  on  the  Alleghany  River,  at  the  mouth 
of  French  Creek.  The  Ohio  was  the  goal  of  these  move 
ments.  The  French  also  seized  the  Ohio  Company's  sur 
veyors  and  destroyed  an  English  post  on  the  Miami. 

Governor  Dinwiddie's  Message. — Governor  Dinwiddie, 
of  Virginia,  a  member  of  the  Ohio  Company,  perceived  that 
some  decided  action  was  necessary,  and  sent  a  messenger 
in  the  autumn  of  1753  to  the  French  forts,  to  give  warning 
that  these  encroached  on  Virginia  territory,  and  to  order 
their  removal.  It  was  a  mission  that  demanded  experience 
and  judgment  in  the  envoy,  yet  the  governor  selected  for 
his  agent  a  young  man  only  twenty- one  years  of  age.  This 
youthful  messenger  had,  however,  for  several  years  been 
engaged  as  a  frontier  land  surveyor,  and  was  familiar  with 
Indian  ways  and  versed  in  woodcraft.  He  also  held  a 
commission  in  the  Virginia  militia.  His  name  was  George 
Washington.1 


1  George  Washington  was  born  at  Bridge's  Creek,  Westmoreland 
County,  Virginia,  February  22, 1732.  His  great-grandfather,  John  Wash 
ington,  had  emigrated  to  Virginia  about  1657.  As  a  youth  he  possessed 
great  strength  and  agility,  and  was  noted  for  truthfulness  and  accuracy. 


THE   FRENCH   AND   INDIAN  WAR.  155 

Difficulties  of  the  Enterprise. — Youth  and  strength 
were  needed  as  well  as  discretion.  A  winter  journey  of 
over  a  thousand  miles  had  to  be  made  through  the  un 
broken  wilderness.  Negotiations  with  Indian  chiefs  as  well 
as  French  officers  were  required,  and  information  of  what 
the  French  were  doing  and  proposing  to  do  was  im 
portant. 

Washington's  Journey. — The  errand  of  the  young  mes 
senger  was  well  performed,  but  the  French,  as  was  expected, 
refused  to  retire.  They  had  ready  a  large  number  of  canoes, 
and  were  building  others,  for  a  further  movement  down  the 
Alleghany  in  the  coming  spring.  Washington  gained  much 
information  concerning  their  designs,  won  the  friendship  of 
the  Indians,  and  returned  in  safety  after  enduring  severe 
hardships.1 

When  at  school  he  settled  all  disputes  between  the  boys,  and  would 
not  permit  any  unfairness.  His  exercise  books  are  remarkable  for 
their  neatness  and  carefulness.  The  same  may  be  said  of  his  books 
in  later  days,  when  he  managed  his  plantation  and  shipped  tobacco 
and  flour  abroad.  It  is  said  that  government  agents  never  inspected 
the  flour-barrels  marked  with  his  name.  They  knew  that  there  was 
no  lie  in  the  Washington  stamp.  He  begun  the  business  of  a  surveyor 
in  1748,  when  sixteen  years  of  age.  At  nineteen  he  was  appointed 
adjutant-general  (with  the  rank  of  major)  in  the  Virginia  militia. 
The  prudence,  sagacity,  and  resolution  which  he  showed  in  his  mem 
orable  journey  to  the  French  forts  were  the  beginning  of  his  fortunes. 
It  was  evident  to  the  authorities  that  he  was  a  man  to  be  trusted  with 
important  duties.  His  later  history  is  the  history  of  his  country  during 
his  career. 

1  Washington  was  obliged  to  cross  swollen  streams,  to  make  his  way 
through  frozen  snows,  and  to  travel  a  long  distance  on  foot  through 
the  forest,  the  horses  having  given  out.  His  journey  was  an  eventful 
one.  He  and  his  companion  were  fired  at  by  an  Indian.  Reaching 
the  Alleghany,  they  found  it  full  of  floating  ice,  which  was  running 
swiftly  down  the  stream.  Attempting  to  cross  it  on  a  raft,  Washington 


156 


THE   ERA   OF   COLONIAL  WARS. 


Fort  Duquesne.  —  Washington  had  particularly  observed 
the  location  where  the  Monongahela  and  Alleghany  Rivers 

join  to  form  the  Ohio.     This  point, 
where  Pittsburg  now  stands,  com 
mands  the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  and 
was  long  known  as  the  Gateway 
of  the  West.     He  reported  it  as 
an  excellent  place  for  the  build 
ing  of  a  fort,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1754  a  party  was  sent 
there  for  that  purpose. 
But  with  the  opening  of 
spring  a  strong  party  of 
French  came  in  canoes 
down   the   Alleghany, 
drove  off  the  workmen, 
and     built    a    fort    for 
themselves,  which  they 
named  Fort  Duquesne. 
It  was  one  that  was  to 
play  an  important  part 

jn     the     history    of    the 

war. 

The  First  Conflict.  —  The  Virginians  were  alert  as  well  as 
the  French.  A  regiment  was  already  marching  toward  the 
contested  spot,  with  Washington  as  second  in  command. 
On  hearing  of  the  French  action,  the  young  officer  hurried 
forward  with  a  reconnoitring  party,  and  soon  met  a  party 
of  French  skulking  in  the  woods  with  apparently  hostile 


THE  FOKT  DUQUESNE  CAMPAIGN. 


fell  into  the  cold  flood  and  barely  escaped  with  his  life.  The  night 
was  spent  without  shelter  or  fire  on  an  island,  but  in  the  morning 
they  succeeded  in  reaching  the  opposite  shore,  and  completed  in  safety 
their  mid-winter  journey. 


THE   FRENCH   AND   INDIAN  WAR.  157 

intent.  Washington,  distrusting  their  efforts  at  secrecy, 
ordered  his  men  to  fire,  and  the  French  leader,  Jumonville, 
was  slain.  Thus  was  fired  (May  28,  1754)  the  first  shot  in 
one  of  the  most  important  of  American  wars. 

Fort  Necessity. — Colonel  Frye  died  on  the  march,  and 
Washington  succeeded  to  the  command.  Finding  the 
French  too  strong  for  him,  he  built  a  stockade  at  the  Great 
Meadows,  which  he  named  Fort  Necessity.  Here  he  was 
attacked  by  a  strong  body  of  French  and  Indians,  and 
after  a  severe  fight  was  forced  to  surrender  on  July  4, 
being  granted  the  honorable  terms  that  he  and  his  men 
should  return  home  with  their  arms  and  effects. 

The  First  American  "War. — In  this  way  began  the  first 
truly  American  war.  It  was  no  echo  of  European  conflicts, 
like  the  former  wars,  but  arose  in  the  colonies  themselves, 
as  the  natural  resultant  of  the  growing  jealousy  and  desire 
for  empire  of  the  French  and  English  colonists.  Instead  of 
growing  out  of  a  European  war,  it  gave  rise  to  one  'which 
began  two  years  afterward. 

England  Sends  Aid. — As  soon  as  tidings  of  this  conflict 
crossed  the  ocean,  both  England  and  France  prepared  to 
come  to  the  aid  of  their  colonies.  England  sent  General 
Braddock,  an  officer  experienced  in  civilized  warfare,  but 
wofully  ignorant  of  Indian  fighting,  with  two  regiments  of 
regular  soldiers.  To  these  he  added  a  force  of  Virginia 
militia,  and  began  in  the  summer  of  1755  a  march  through 
the  forest  towards  Fort  Duquesne,  Washington  going  along 
as  a  member  of  his  staff.1 


1  Braddock  spent  months  on  the  way,  making  roads  as  he  went,  and 
wasting  much  valuable  time.  Yet  with  ordinary  prudence  the  fort  might 
easily  have  been  taken.  It  contained  few  French,  and  the  Indians  were 
in  no  good  humor  for  fighting.  It  was  a  question  whether  they  should 
flee  or  fight.  The  excellent  opening  which  was  left  for  an  ambuscade 


158  THE   ERA  OF  COLONIAL  WARS. 

Braddock's  Defeat. — Benjamin  Franklin  had  warned 
General  Braddock  of  what  he  had  to  expect  in  Indian 
warfare.  Washington  and  other  officers  repeated  the  warn 
ing.  But  Braddock  was  obstinate  and  opinionated.  He 


BRADDOCK'S  DEFEAT. 

gave  his  advisers  to  understand  that  these  lurking  savages 
would  not  stand  long  before  British  regulars,  and  marched 
on  in  disciplined  array. 

At  length  the  over-confident  army  reached  a  point  ten 
miles  from  the  fort.  Here  the  regiments  entered  a  deep 
ravine,  whose  hill-sides  were  thick  with  underbrush.  Sud- 

decided  the  chance  in  favor  of  the  latter.  Thus  the  conceit  and  obsti 
nacy  of  one  man  led  to  serious  consequences  for  thousands. 


THE  FRENCH   AND   INDIAN  WAR.  159 

denly  the  war-whoop  sounded,  and  bullets  poured  upon 
them  from  every  side.  The  Virginians,  finding  themselves 
in  an  ambuscade,  sprang  into  the  forest  and  fought  the  sav 
ages  in  their  own  style.1  But  Braddock  obstinately  kept 
his  men  in  their  ranks,  though  their  fire  was  useless  and 
they  were  rapidly  falling.  He  even  struck  some  of  the  pro 
vincials  with  his  sword  because  they  would  not  stand  to 
be  shot  at.  In  the  end  he  was  mortally  wounded,  and  his 
men  fled  in  dismay.  Washington  covered  the  retreat  with 
the  remnant  of  the  colonial  troops  and  saved  the  flying 
regulars  from  destruction.2 

The  English  Plan  of  Campaign. — The  capture  of  Fort 
Duquesne  was  only  one  of  the  purposes  which  the  Eng 
lish  had  in  view.  It  was  evident  that  a  much  wider  conflict 
lay  before  them.  If  the 'Mississippi  Valley  was  to  be  saved 
it  could  most  effectually  be  done  by  driving  the  French  from 
America,  and  it  was  this  grand  achievement  which  the  au 
thorities  abroad  proposed  to  undertake. 


1  The  colonists,  French  and  English  alike,  had  learned  the  art  of 
forest  warfare.   They  loaded  their  guns  while  lying  on  the  ground,  and 
fired  from  behind  trees  and  stumps,  retreating  to  load  and  running  for 
ward  to  fire.   They  were  sure  marksmen,  and  those  at  whom  they  fired 
commonly  fell.     The  regulars,  on  the  contrary,  were  taught  to  fire  in 
platoons  at  the  enemy's  line,  without  taking  aim.     In  fighting  with  In 
dians,  their  bullets  were  mostly  wasted.     The  regulars  were  unfit  by 
habit,  discipline,  and  clothing  for  fighting  in  the  woods.     The  Ameri 
cans,  on  whom  discipline  was  wasted,  were  born  woodland  fighters. 

2  Washington  alone  won  credit  in  this  disastrous  affair.    His  activity 
was  remarkable.    Danger  did  not  affect  his  cool  judgment.    Two  horses 
were  shot  under  him  and  four  balls  pierced  his  clothes.    An  old  Indian 
chief  afterward  stated  that  he  had  fired  fifteen  times  at  him  without 
hitting  him,  until  he  concluded  that  the  white  brave  bore  a  charmed 
life.     Washington  never  received  a  wound  in  battle,  though  he  never 
hesitated  to  risk  his  life. 


160  THE   ERA   OF   COLONIAL  WARS. 

But  the  French  were  not  to  be  reached  without  difficulty. 
They  were  protected  by  nature.  Between  Canada  and  the 
English  colonies  lay  a  broad  belt  of  forest  and  mountain, 
almost  impassable  to  an  army.  The  natural  lines  of  attack, 
in  addition  to  that  against  Fort  Duquesne,  lay  along  Lakes 
Geerge  and  Champlain,  and  up  the  St.  Lawrence  by  the 
ocean  route.  The  Niagara  River  offered  another  line  of 
approach. 

The  French  Defences. — These  channels  of  communi 
cation  were  all  strongly  guarded  by  the  French.  Fort 
Duquesne  was  the  key  to  the  Ohio  Valley.  A  fort  at  Crown 
Point  defended  the  Lake  Champlain  route.  Fort  Niagara,  on 
the  Niagara  Biver,  controlled  the  route  to  the  upper  lakes. 
Louisburg  threatened  New  England  and  the  fisheries,  serv 
ing  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  French  privateers.  Back  of  all 
these  lay  the  strongly  fortified  post  of  Quebec,  controlling 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  serving  as  the  basic  point  of  the 
French  power  in  America. 

Expulsion  of  the  Acadians. — A  portion  of  the  original 
French  territory,  that  now  known  as  Nova  Scotia,  had  been 
in  English  possession  since  Queen  Anne's  War.  A  success 
ful  expedition  against  the  remainder  of  Acadia,  principally 
what  is  now  New  Brunswick,  was  undertaken  in  1755.  It 
was  attended  by  a  cruel  act,  which  has  long  been  reprobated. 
The  Acadians  were  ignorant  peasants,  simple  in  habits, 
strongly  French  in  sympathy,  and  not  content  in  their  posi 
tion  as  British  subjects.  Many  of  them  gave  aid  and  infor 
mation  to  the  French,  a  course  which  so  greatly  exasper 
ated  the  English  that  a  resolution  to  expel  them  from  their 
country  was  taken. 

They  were  granted  permission  to  remain  if  they  would 
take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  English  king,  but  this  most 
of  them  refused,  and  more  than  six  thousand  were  forced 


THE   FRENCH   AND   INDIAN  WAR. 


161 


on  shipboard  and  distributed  among  the  English  colonies. 
The  work  was  done  cruelly.  Families  were  separated,  their 
homes  were  burned  to  keep  them  from  coming  back,  and 
their  fertile  farms  laid  waste.  Many  of  the  exiles  found  new 
homes  in  the  French  settlements  of  Louisiana.  But  their 


EXPULSION  OF  TJTE  ACADIANS. 

love  for  their  old  fields  was  never  lost,  and  in  the  end  many 
returned  and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance.  Their  love  for 
Acadia  proved  stronger  than  their  fidelity  to  France.  This 
act  of  expulsion  has  been  defended  as  a  military  necessity, 
but  it  is  not  easy  to  believe  that  so  cruel  a  deed  could  not 
have  been  avoided. 

The  Battle  of  Lake  George. — In  the  same  year  with 
the  Duquesne  and  Acadian  expeditions  (1755)  another  was 
undertaken  against  Crown  Point,  a  strong  work  which  the 

11 


162  THE  ERA  OF  COLONIAL  WARS. 

French  had  built  on  the  west  side  of  Lake  Champlain.  It 
was  led  by  Sir  William  Johnson,  a  New  York  landholder 
who  had  great  influence  with  the  Iroquois  Indians,  many 
of  whom  followed  him  to  the  field. 

The  French  advanced  to  meet  their  foes,  and  the  two 
armies  met  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  George.  A  severe 
battle  followed,  in  which  the  French  were  at  first  successful, 
but  afterward  met  with  a  severe  defeat  from  the  provincial 
troops  under  General  Lyman.1  Johnson,  though  victorious, 
did  not  proceed  against  Crown  Point,  so  that  the  purpose 
of  the  expedition  failed.  He  contented  himself  with  build 
ing  Fort  William  Henry,  at  the  head  of  the  lake.  The 
French  built  the  afterward  famous  Fort  Ticonderoga,  near 
the  opposite  extremity  of  Lake  George. 

"War  Declared. — It  was  not  until  1756  that  war  was 
formally  declared,  though  it  had  existed  in  America  for  two 
years.  It  now  spread  to  the  European  continent  and  to  the 
colonies  of  France  and  England  in  India.  America  had  thus 
lighted  a  brand  of  war  whose  destructive  effects  spread 
round  the  world. 

Montcalm's  Victories. — In  1756  the  Marquis  de  Mont- 
calm,  an  able  French  officer,  was  made  commander-in-chief 
in  America,  and  signalized  his  ability  by  the  capture  of  the 
English  post  at  Oswego,  which  gave  him  fourteen  hundred 
prisoners,  a  large  amount  of  stores,  and  full  command  of 
Lake  Ontario.  It  was  a  serious  loss  to  the  English  cause. 
In  the  following  year  he  descended  Lakes  Champlain  -and 

1  Baron  Dieskau,  the  commander  of  the  French  army,  was  found  by 
the  pursuers,  wounded  and  alone,  supported  against  a  tree.  As  a  pro 
vincial  soldier  approached,  the  wounded  general  felt  for  his  watch, 
hoping  to  gain  safety  by  the  present.  But  the  soldier  thought  that  he 
was  feeling  for  his  pistol,  and  shot  him.  The  wound  was  incurable, 
though  he  suffered  from  its  effects  for  ten  years  before  dying. 


THE   FRENCH   AND   INDIAN  WAR. 


163 


George  with  a  strong  force,  attacked  Fort  William  Henry, 
and  forced  its  surrender. 

The  Fort  William  Henry  Massacre. — A  terrible  affair 
followed.     The  English  garrison  marched  out  of  the  fort 


without  their  arms,  having  been 
promised  a  safe  escort  to  Fort 
Edward,  on  the  Hudson  River. 
But  the  escort  did  not  appear 
in  time,  and  Montcalm's  Indian  THE  SEAT  OPWAK  m  NEW  YOKK. 
allies  fell  on  the  defenceless 

English  and  massacred  great  numbers  of  them,  despite  all 
the  French  officers  could  do  to  restrain  their  fury.  Many 
others  were  carried  off  by  the  Indians  as  prisoners.  Mont- 
calm  has  been  severely  blamed  for  inertness  in  this  scene 
of  savage  butchery,  though  perhaps  without  just  cause. 

The  Attack  on  Ticonderoga. — During  the  next  summer 
(1758)  a  vigorous  effort  was  made  to  take  Fort  Ticonderoga, 
General  Abercrombie  marching  against  it  at  the  head  of 
fifteen  thousand  troops.  Montcalm  held  the  fort  with  less 


164  THE  ERA  OF  COLONIAL  WARS. 

than  one-third  this  force.  Yet  despite  the  strength  of  the 
British  army  it  was  driven  back  in  complete  defeat  and  with 
heavy  loss. 

The  Results  of  Four  Years. — Up  to  this  time  success 
had  remained  with  the  French.  They  had  been  victori 
ous  at  Fort  Duquesne  and  Lake  Champlain,  and  England, 
though  it  had  made  vigorous  exertions  and  raised  large 
bodies  of  troops,  had  only  the  pitiful  success  in  Acadia  of 
which  to  boast. 

The  victories  of  France  had  been  due  to  strenuous  efforts 
of  the  home  government.  If  the  war  had  been  left  to  the 
colonists  there  could  have  been  but  one  result.  The  French 
area  in  America,  though  vast,  was  but  a  shell,  its  population 
being  not  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand. 
The  English  colonies,  on  the  contrary,  were  compactly  set 
tled,  their  population  being  one  million  two  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand.  This  great  discrepancy  in  numbers  might 
not  have  made  itself  manifest  in  the  first  years  of  the  war, 
with  so  difficult  a  country  intervening,  yet  in  the  end  it 
could  not  have  failed  to  give  success  to  the  English  colonists. 

William  Pitt's  Method. — As  it  was,  the  reinforcements 
sent  from  abroad  aided  to  equalize  the  strength  of  the  com 
batants,  and  served  to  protract  the  struggle.  But  the  suc 
cess  of  the  French  ceased.  William  Pitt,  the  new  minister 
of  England,  took  steps  for  a  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war,  and  managed  to  keep  the  armies  of  France  occupied 
in  Europe,  while  English  fleets  and  armies  strenuously 
attacked  her  colonies  abroad.  The  outcome  of  this  policy 
in  America  remains  to  be  told. 

The  Work  of  1758. — The  defeat  at  Ticonderoga  was  the 
only  failure  in  the  new  policy.  A  strong  expedition  was 
sent  during  the  same  year  against  Louisburg,  and  that 
stronghold  was  a  second  time  captured.  Another  army 


THE  FRENCH   AND   INDIAN  WAR. 


165 


was  sent  against  Fort  Duquesne.  This  fort  had,  since 
Braddock's  defeat,  been  the  centre  of  destructive  Indian 
raids  on  the  frontier,  in  dealing  with  which  Washington  had 
been  kept  busy.  As  the  army  slowly  made  its  way  toward 
the  fort,  General  Forbes,  its  commander,  diligently  making 
a  road  as  he  advanced,  winter  came  on,  the  troops  com 
plained,  and  it  was  decided  to  abandon  the  enterprise.  But 
learning  that  the  garrison  was  weak,  Washington  asked  the 
privilege  to  advance  with  his  Virginians.  Permission  was 
given,  and  he  moved  rapidly  forward.  On  his  approach 
the  garrison  set  fire  to  the  fort  and  fled.  The  flames  were 
extinguished  and  the  name  of  the  fortress  was  changed  to 
Fort  Pitt,  in  honor  of  the  great  statesman. 

The  Siege  of  Quebec. — In  July,  1759,  Forts  Niagara  and 
Ticonderoga  were  taken  by  the  English,  and  an  expedition 
sailed  against  Quebec,  led 
by  General  Wolfe,  an  offi 
cer  who  had  distinguished 
himself  in  the  taking  of 
Louisburg.  The  struggle 
had  narrowed  itself  to  a 
single  point,  the  forces 
were  nearly  equal,  and 
the  commanders  both  of 
high  military  renown. 
Montcalm  had,  by  active 
efforts,  collected  an  army 
of  seven  thousand  men 
for  the  defence  of  Quebec.  Wolfe  had  a  large  fleet  and 
eight  thousand  soldiers  for  the  siege. 

Fruitless  Assault. — For  months  Wolfe  continued  the 
assault,  cannonading  the  city  and  seeking  some  promising 
point  of  attack.  He  was  almost  in  despair  as  autumn  came 


THE  SIEGE  OF  QUEBEC. 


166  THE  ERA  OF   COLONIAL  WARS. 

and  the  period  of  the  closing  of  the  stream  by  ice  was  at 
hand.  Montcalm  at  length  beheld  with  joy  the  English 
troops  taken  on  board  the  ships,  which  moved  during  the 
day  up-stream  as  if  with  the  intention  of  abandoning  the 
contest. 

The  Path  up  the  Cliff.— He  was  deceived.  Wolfe  had 
quite  another  purpose  in  view.  He  had  carefully  investi 
gated  on  the  land  side  the  lofty  cliff  on  which  the  city 
stood,  and  perceived  there  a  narrow,  craggy  path  winding 
up  the  rocks  to  the  top.  It  seemed  impossible  for  an  army 
to  ascend,  yet  he  was  determined  to  attempt  it  as  a  last 
resort. 

When  night  fell  the  boats,  filled  with  soldiers,  silently 
floated  down  the  river  with  the  ebb  tide.1  When  the  point 
now  known  as  Wolfe's  Cove  was  reached,  the  men  landed, 
and  clambered  in  a  narrow  line  up  the  steep  pathway. 
Those  who  first  reached  the  summit  surprised  and  dis 
persed  the  small  guard  they  found  there.  The  others 
rapidly  followed  in  a  continuous  line,  and  when  the  morn 
ing  of  September  13,  1759,  broke,  the  French  beheld  with 
astonishment  an  English  army,  five  thousand  strong,  con- 

1  For  two  hours  the  boats  floated  noiselessly  down  the  stream  under 
a  moonless  but  starlit  sky.  French  sentinels  lined  the  shore,  but 
only  one  of  them  took  the  alarm.  "  Qui  vive  /"  came  a  sharp  chal 
lenge  through  the  gloom.  "France!"  answered  a  Highland  officer 
who  spoke  French.  "A  quel  rbgimentf  "  De  la  Reine,"  was  the 
reply.  The  sentinel  was  satisfied  and  did  not  ask  for  the  password. 
The  moment  of  peril  was  passed.  Wolfe  was  feeble  in  health,  and  had 
risen  from  a  sick-bed  to  conduct  this  expedition.  As  they  floated 
onward  he  recited  in  a  low  voice  to  the  officers  around  him  Gray's 
"  Elegy  in  a  Country  Church-Yard,'1  one  line  being  "  The  paths  of  glory 
lead  but  to  the  grave."  The  truth  of  this  he  was  soon  to  illustrate  in 
his  own  fate.  "  Gentlemen,"  he  said,  "  I  would  rather  have  written 
those  lines  than  take  Quebec." 


THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR.  167 

fronting  them  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  the  level  plateau 
which  extends  west  of  the  city. 

The  Decisive  Battle. — Montcalm,  staggered  at  the  unex 
pected  sight,  lost  no  time  in  seeking  to  dislodge  the  foe, 
before  more  could  ascend  or  more  cannon  be  drawn  up. 
An  impetuous  attack  was  made,  which  the  British  veterans 
bore  unmoved.  The  fighting  grew  sharp  and  fierce,  the 
French,  most  of  whom  were  provincial  militia,  falling 
rapidly  before  the  quick  and  steady  volleys  of  the  British. 
At  length  they  began  to  break.  Wolfe  ordered  a  bayonet 
charge,  which  he  himself  led.  He  was  twice  wounded,  and 
at  length  fell  with  a  third  and  mortal  wound. 

A  few  minutes  afterward  he  heard  the 
exultant  cry,  "  They  run  !  they  run  !" 

"  Who  run  ?"  he  demanded. 

"  The  French !  they  give  way  every 
where." 

"  Go  to  Colonel  Burton,"  he  cried ; 
"tell  him  to  march  Webb's  regiment 
down  to  Charles  River  to  cut  off  their 
retreat  from  the  bridge."  GENERAL  WOLFE. 

Then   he   murmured,  "  Now  God  be 
praised,  I  will  die  in  peace,"  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  life 
of  the  victor  passed  away. 

Fate  of  Montcalm. — Montcalm  had  a  similar  fate.  Borne 
on  the  tide  of  retreat  toward  the  city,  he  was  shot  through 
the  body  before  the  gate  was  reached.  The  surgeon  told 
him  that  the  wound  was  mortal.  "  So  much  the  better," 
he  replied ;  "  for  then  I  shall  not  live  to  see  the  surrender 
of  Quebec." 

Five  4aYs  afterward  the  city  surrendered,  and  the  colo 
nial  domain  of  New  France  was  at  an  end. 

End  of  the  War. — An  attempt  was  made  in  the  next  year 


168 


THE   ERA  OF  COLONIAL   WARS. 


to  reconquer  Quebec,  and  a  severe  battle  was  fought,  but 
the  siege  was  raised  on  the  approach  of  a  powerful  English 
fleet.  Then  a  strong  army  marched  on  Montreal,  the  last 
French  stronghold,  which  quickly  surrendered.  This  ended 
the  conflict.  All  Canada  submitted.  England  was  master 
of  the  continent,  with  the  exception  of  the  French  posts  on 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Gulf,  from  Florida  to  the  Arctic 
seas. 

Peace  and  its  Provisions. — There  was  no  more  fighting 
in  America,  though  the  war  continued  abroad.     Peace  was 


ENGLISH  TERRITORY  AFTER  THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIAN  WAR. 

made  at  Paris  in  1763.  France  had  been  defeated,  and 
gave  up  her  whole  Canadian  province  to  England,  retaining 
only  two  small  islands  near  Newfoundland,  which  she  held 
for  fishing  purposes.  But  the  treaty  of  peace  contained 
other  important  clauses.  Spain  had  aided  France  in  the 
last  years  of  the  war.  In  consequence,  in  1762,  England 


THE   FRENCH  AND   INDIAN  WAR.  169 

conquered  Cuba  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  These  islands 
were  now  given  back  to  Spain  in  exchange  for  Florida, 
which  became  English  territory. 

France  Yields  her  Western  Claims. — France  had  sur 
rendered  to  England  all  her  claim  to  territory  in  the  Ohio 
Valley.  She  still  claimed  the  territory  west  of  the  Missis 
sippi  River  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  held  New  Orleans. 
These  were  ceded  to  her  ally,  Spain,  to  repay  that  country 
for  the  loss  of  Florida.  In  consequence  France  did  not 
retain  a  foot  of  land  on  the  continent  of  North  America. 
All  this  continent  east  of  the  Mississippi,  except  New  Or 
leans  and  the  island  on  which  it  lay,  belonged  to  England. 
All  west  of  that  river  belonged  to  Spain.  To  the  great  un 
known  Northwest  neither  country  troubled  itself  to  lay 
claim.  Thus  the  year  1763  wrought  a  mighty  change  in 
the  destinies  of  America. 

The  Indian  Bights  Ignored. — In  this  great  deal  the 
rights  of  one  party  to  the  conquest  were  quite  overlooked. 
The  Indians,  who  had  so  greatly  aided  France,  were  quietly 
handed  over  to  the  dominion  of  England,  without  their 
consent  being  asked  or  thought  of.  To  this  they  seriously 
objected.  They  were  friendly  to  the  French,  who  treated 
them  well  and  conformed  to  their  habits  and  prejudices. 
They  distrusted  and  hated  the  English,  whose  only  allies 
were  the  Iroquois.  The  defeat  of  the  French  left  them 
exposed  to  the  encroachments  of  English  settlers,  and  they 
clearly  saw  that,  unless  they  could  drive  back  these  in 
vaders,  they  would  be  overwhelmed. 

Pontiac's  Conspiracy. — Pontiac,  a  leading  Ottawa  chief, 
and  a  man  of  great  influence  with  the  tribes,  perceived  this 
danger  and  sought  to  counteract  it.  He  organized  a  con 
federation  of  the  tribes  west  of  the  mountains,  with  the 
purpose  of  seeking  to  expel  the  English.  Even  the  Sene- 


170  THE   ERA   OF   COLONIAL  WARS. 

cas,  one  of  the  Iroquois  tribes,  was  induced  to  join  it.  His 
purpose  was  to  fall  on  all  the  English  forts  at  once  and 
take  them  by  surprise.  The  effort  was  largely  successful. 
In  May  and  June,  1763,  eight  forts  were  surprised,  and 
their  garrisons  captured  or  destroyed.  Hundreds  of  settlers 
were  murdered,  thousands  fled  to  escape  the  scalping- 
knife.  Only  Detroit  and  Fort  Pitt  successfully  resisted  the 
savage  assault.1  For  two  years  the  war  continued,  though 
in  1764  the  savages  were  severely  defeated  at  Bushy  Run, 
in  Pennsylvania,  by  Colonel  Henry  Bouquet.  Sir  William 
Johnson  induced  the  Senecas  to  withdraw  from  the  con 
spiracy.  Other  vigorous  steps  were  taken,  and  peace  was 
finally  made  in  1766.  Pontiac  was  assassinated  by  another 
Indian  in  1769. 

Results  of  the  War. — The  French  and  Indian  War  told 
heavily  on  the  colonies.  It  cost  them  in  money  sixteen  mil 
lion  dollars,  of  which  England  repaid  only  five  million  dol 
lars.  They  lost  sixty  thousand  men,  and  suffered  severely 
from  Indian  raids.  The  taxes  were  very  heavy,  but  were 
levied  by  their  own  representatives  and  paid  without  pro 
test.  The  provincial  soldiers  were  treated  with  disdain  by 

1  The  Indians  indulged  in  various  cunning  tricks  to  deceive  the 
unsuspecting  garrisons.  At  Mackinaw  a  game  of  ball  was  played 
before  the  fort.  The  ball  was  driven,  as  if  by  accident,  toward  the 
open  gate,  where  the  officers  stood  watching.  The  Indians  followed, 
and  in  an  instant  had  seized  the  officers  and  poured  into  the  fort. 
The  work  of  slaughter  at  once  began.  At  another  fort  the  commander 
was  lured  out  to  visit  a  sick  squaw.  Detroit  was  saved  by  a  squaw, 
who  revealed  the  plot.  In  the  siege  of  this  place  Pontiac  showed 
much  ability.  Several  times  he  sent  fire-rafts  against  the  armed 
vessels  which  the  English  had  in  the  river.  He  obtained  provisions 
from  the  French  farmers  by  requisition,  and  paid  them  with  birch- 
bark  notes  signed  with  the  figure  of  an  otter.  These  notes  were  all 
redeemed. 


THE   FRENCH   AND   INDIAN   WAR.  171 

the  regulars,  and  American  officers  of  proved  valor  were 
often  thrust  aside  in  favor  of  young  British  subalterns. 

But  the  colonists  had  gained  more  than  they  had  lost. 
Many  officers  who  were  to  win  fame  in  the  Revolution  re 
ceived  their  military  training  in  this  war.  Among  these 
were  "Washington,  Putnam,  Gates,  Montgomery,  Stark, 
Arnold,  and  others.  The  colonies  had  fought  together,  and 
had  become  more  united  in  spirit  while  gaining  a  fuller 
appreciation  of  their  own  strength.  They  had  learned  to 
act  independently  of  England,  having  voted  money,  raised 
troops,  and  fought  battles  for  themselves.  The  war  was 
their  own,  and  they  had  conquered.  Furthermore,  they 
were  now  owners  of  the  great  West.  The  vast  region  be 
yond  the  Alleghanies  lay  before  them,  to  settle  as  they 
would.  No  enemy  was  there  but  the  Indian,  and  he  was 
powerless  to  stay  the  westward  march. 


PART  V. 
FROM  COLONIES  TO  UNITED  STATES* 


i.   A  NEW  KING  AND  A  NEW  POLICY. 

George  III.  and  his  Advisers. — In  1760,  George  II.,  in 
whose  reign  had  been  fought  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
died,  and  a  new  king,  George  III.,  came  to  the  English 
throne.  He  was  a  man  not  well  fitted  to  deal  with  a 
people  as  sensitive  on  the  subject  of  political  liberty  as  the 
Americans.  Obstinate  in  disposition  and  dull  in  mind,  with 
an  exaggerated  view  of  the  royal  prerogative,  he  was  sec 
onded  by  ministers  and  a  Parliament  who  could  not  be 
made  to  understand  the  feeling  of  the  colonists,  and  who 
persisted  in  a  policy  that  in  a  few  years  drove  them  into 
rebellion.  The  gradual  steps  by  which  this  was  accom 
plished  it  is  our  purpose  next  to  describe. 

Views  Concerning  Trade. — At  that  time  the  most  en 
lightened  people  had  views  concerning  commerce  different 
from  those  held  to-day.  No  one  seemed  to  understand  that 
trade  would  be  most  prosperous  if  free  from  restrictions. 
And  it  was  held  that  colonies  existed  for  the  good  of  the 
mother-country  and  had  no  independent  rights  of  their 
own. 

The   Navigation   Acts. — Laws   were   therefore   passed 

which  declared  that  the  American  colonies  should  trade 

only  with  Great  Britain.     Their  rice,  their  tobacco,  their 

ore,  and  their  lumber  must  be  shipped  only  to  British 

172 


A  NEW   KING  AND  A   NEW   POLICY.  173 

ports  ;  and  if  they  wanted  tea  or  silk  they  must  buy  it 
from  British  merchants. 

The  first  of  these  Navigation  Acts,  as  they  were  called, 
was  passed  in  1651,  in  Cromwell's  time.  Others  were 
passed  in  later  years.  At  first  the  colonists  were  permitted 
to  use  their  own  ships.  But  the  ship-builders  of  New 
England  grew  so  active  that  the  British  law-makers  de 
cided  to  protect  their  ship-yards  as  well  as  their  merchants. 
For  this  purpose  a  law  was  passed  in  1663  which  declared 
that  no  goods  should  be  imported  in  American  ships  un 
less  these  had  been  built  before  October,  1662.  This  was 
intended  to  restrict  trade  in  time  to  ships  built  in  British 
yards.  The  colonies  were  not  even  permitted  to  use  their 
own  ships  to  trade  with  one  another. 

Restrictions  on  Manufactures. — Great  Britain  had  not 
only  the  good  of  her  merchants  in  view.  Her  manufac 
turers  must  also  be  protected  from  those  busy  colonists. 
It  would  not  do  to  let  them  make  goods  for  themselves, 
since  this  might  injure  British  workshops.  They  might 
grow  wool,  but  they  had  no  right  to  weave  it  into  cloth. 
Iron  might  be  smelted  from  their  ores,  but  only  English 
smiths  had  the  right  to  work  it  into  nails  and  ploughshares. 
Raw  materials  of  this  kind  must  be  shipped  to  England, 
there  to  be  wrought  into  goods.  On  the  other  hand,  grain 
and  other  farm  produce  must  not  be  shipped.  Such  pro 
duce  was  raised  on  English  farms,  and  English  farmers  in 
their  turn  demanded  protection.  Therefore  a  tariff  was 
placed  on  the  products  of  the  fields,  so  high  that  the 
American  farmers  could  not  afford  to  export  them.  Thus 
in  every  way  possible  Great  Britain  sought  to  tie  the  hands 
of  American  labor. 

Commerce  and  Industry  Forbidden. — The  people  of 
America  strongly  desired  to  make  their  own  goods,  and 


174  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

naturally  sought  to  find  customers  for  them.  This  Eng 
land  sternly  forbade.  In  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary 
laws  were  passed  which  said  that  no  paper,  hats,  iron, 
leather,  or  other  articles  should  be  exported,  even  from 
one  colony  to  another.  In  some  cases  their  manufacture 
also  was  forbidden.  No  hatter  was  permitted  to  have  more 
than  two  apprentices  at  a  time,  or  to  send  a  hat  out  of  his 
own  town  or  district.  It  was  declared  by  William  Pitt,  a 
friend  of  the  Americans,  that  not  even  a  horseshoe  nail 
could  be  legally  made  without  permission  from  Parliament.1 
The  Smugglers. — It  proved  easier  to  make  such  laws 
than  to  enforce  them.  In  spite  of  the  edicts  against  man 
ufacture,  many  things  were  made  in  America.  In  spite  of 
the  Navigation  Acts,  ships  were  built  in  American  yards  and 
goods  sent  to  and  brought  from  other  than  English  ports.2 
Smuggling,  it  was  called,  but  no  one  paid  heed  to  that. 
The  trade  between  the  colonies  was  principally  done  in 
vessels  built  and  owned  in  New  England.  Lumber,  fish, 
and  grain  were  sent  to  the  West  Indies  and  molasses  and 


1  Iron-works  were  declared  to  be  "  common  nuisances."   A  prominent 
Englishman  said  that  the  making  of  even  a  hobnail  in  America  would 
be  fatal.     To  print  an  English  Bible  in  the  colonies  would  have  been 
considered  "  an  act  of  piracy."     Turpentine  and  tar  were  forbidden  to 
be  made  in  the  Carolina  pine-forests.     Trees  in  the  Maine  woods  suit 
able  for  masts  belonged  to  the  royal  navy,  and  colonists  were  forbidden 
to  fell  them. 

2  The  Boston  ship-yards  were  kept  busy,  and  sold  every  year  more 
than  a  hundred  vessels   in   England  or  the  West  Indies.      Before 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  New  England  and  New 
York  owned  fully  a  thousand  ships,  besides  their  fishing  fleet.     A  hun 
dred  and  fifty  were  used  in  the  whale  fishery.     These  sent  colonial 
products  to  the  West  Indies,  France,  Spain,  and  other  countries,  and 
brought  back  rich  cargoes.     The  most  of  this  trade  was  done  in  defiance 
of  the  Navigation  Laws. 


A  NEW  KING  AND  A  NEW  POLICY.  175 

sugar  brought  back.  Much  of  this  molasses  was  converted 
into  New  England  rum.  The  ports  of  Holland,  France,  and 
other  countries  were  visited  by  American  ships,  loaded  with 
salt-fish  and  other  goods.  There  were  custom-house  offi 
cials  in  the  seaport  towns,  but  their  office  was  largely  a 
sinecure.  Smuggling  went  on  openly  before  their  eyes,  and 
no  earnest  effort  was  made  to  stop  it. 

Policy  of  George  III. — With  the  accession  of  George  III. 
a  new  policy  came  into  effect.  It  was  determined  that  the 
revenue  laws  should  be  enforced.  The  recent  war  with 
France  had  cost  Great  Britain  heavily.  The  colonies  had 
contributed  large  sums  toward  its  expenses,  but  still  the 
debt  was  great.  The  colonies  were  growing  yearly  richer 
and  more  populous,  and  were  quite  capable  of  paying  their 
share  into  the  treasury  of  the  mother-country.  Therefore, 
in  1761,  it  was  decided  that  smuggling  must  be  stopped  and 
import  duties  collected.1 

Writs  of  Assistance. — This  was  easier  to  decide  than  to 
enforce.  Boston  was  full  of  smuggled  goods.  The  officer 
of  customs  at  that  port  applied  for  "  Writs  of  Assistance"  to 
enable  him  to  search  for  such  goods.  A  Writ  of  Assistance 
was  a  general  search-warrant,  which  gave  the  officer  the 
right  to  break  into  any  warehouse  or  dwelling  he  chose  and 
search  it  from  garret  to  cellar  for  smuggled  goods. 

The  writs  were  granted  and  the  work  began.  Ware 
houses  were  entered  and  goods  claimed  to  be  smuggled 
were  seized.  But  opposition  soon  appeared.  Owners  here 
and  there  barricaded  their  doors  and  defied  the  officers  with 
loaded  guns.  The  axiom  that  "  every  man's  house  is  his 


1  The  population  in  1763  was  probably  little  short  of  two  millions. 
The  annual  exports  were  valued  at  over  five  million  dollars,  the  imports 
at  eight  million  dollars,  and  they  were  rapidly  increasing. 


176  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

castle"  was  being  violated,  and  a  bitter  feeling  was  aroused 
even  in  those  who  had  no  goods  to  be  seized.  The  writs 
failed  in  their  purpose  and  smuggling  went  on. 

Lack  of  Colonial  Cohesion. — In  1754,  during  a  conven 
tion  held  at  Albany,  Benjamin  Franklin  l  had  brought  for 
ward  a  plan  of  union  for  the  colonies,  which  he  considered 
would  enable  them  to  work  together  in  an  emergency.  It 
was  rejected  by  Great  Britain  on  the  plea  that  it  gave  the 
colonies  too  much  power,  and  by  the  colonies  on  the  plea 
that  it  left  them  too  little  power.  As  a  result,  they  remained 
disunited  during  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Each  raised 
men  and  money  separately.  Those  not  in  danger  were 
slow  to  act.  It  was  evident  that  some  power  ought  to  exist 
that  could  enlist  soldiers  and  obtain  money  without  the 
delays  and  danger  of  this  slow  process. 

Not  Ready  for  Union. — Could  a  federal  union  have  been 
formed  this  difficulty  might  have  been  overcome.  But  it 
was  too  soon  for  such  a  union.  The  colonies  were  not  pre 
pared  for  it ;  they  had  been  too  long  used  to  their  separate 
governments  to  be  willing  to  give  them  up.  Great  Britain 

1  Benjamin  Franklin  was  born  in  Boston  in  1706.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  printing,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  went  to  Philadelphia, 
which  city  afterward  remained  his  home.  He  was  long  in  business  as 
printer  and  publisher,  editing  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette  and  publishing 
"  Poor  Richard's  Almanac,"  a  highly  popular  compendium  of  common- 
sense  sayings.  He  was  very  active  -as  a  citizen,  founded  the  Philadel 
phia  Library  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  originated  other 
Philadelphia  institutions.  He  became  famous  for  a  great  scientific 
discovery,  in  which  he  drew  electricity  from  the  clouds  and  proved  the 
cause  of  lightning  to  be  electrical.  He  was  one  of  the  best  American 
prose  writers  c  f  the  century.  In  1753  he  was  appointed  postmaster- 
general  for  America.  During  the  rest  of  his  life  he  was  deeply  engaged 
in  public  business,  and  did  much  to  advance  the  cause  of  American 
liberty  abroad  and  at  home. 


A  NEW   KING  AND  A  NEW   POLICY.  177 

did  not  want  it ;  it  was  easier  to  deal  with  thirteen  dis 
united  colonies  than  with  a  single  united  one.  Yet  some 
central  authority  seemed  needed,  and  the  British  ministry 
devised  a  plan  for  one  which  they  thought  would  work. 

The  British  Proposition. — What  they  proposed  to  do 
was  as  follows : 

1.  A  small  army  seemed  to  them  necessary  for  the  de 
fence  of  the  colonies.     This  could  be  sent  from  England 
and  its  expenses  paid  by  America. 

2.  The  governors,  judges,  and  crown  attorneys  were  to 
be  paid  with  American  money,  but  this  money  was  to  be 
raised  by  taxes  over  which  the  colonial  assemblies  had  no 
control,  and  to  be  disbursed  by  the  crown. 

3.  If  any  money  remained,  it  was  to  be  used  in  giving 
pensions  to  deserving  Americans. 

In  short,  America  was  asked  to  give  up  functions  which 
it  had  always  exercised  at  home  and  to  supply  money  which 
would  make  its  officials  independent  of  control  except  by 
the  British  king,  and  whose  surplus  could  be  used  for  pur 
poses  of  bribery  or  corruption.  They  were,  in  fact,  asked 
to  deliver  themselves  over,  bound  hand  and  foot,  into  the 
power  of  the  crown. 

The  Colonists  Object. — Such  a  demand  might  have  suc 
ceeded  with  French  and  Spanish  colonists.  It  could  hardly 
succeed  with  English.  For  a  century  and  more  the  colo 
nists  had  voted  their  own  taxes,  paid  their  own  officials, 
and  made  their  own  laws.  They  were  not  likely  to  give 
up  this  privilege  without  a  long  and  bitter  struggle. 

Hitherto  they  had  known  only  the  king  in  their  dealings, 
and  performed  their  own  legislative  work.  Now  they  were 
asked  to  yield  themselves  to  the  control  of  Parliament.  It 
was  a  new  demand,  and  one  to  which  English  colonists 
were  very  unlikely  to  submit. 

12 


178  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

Taxation ;  Stamp  Act. — How  best  to  carry  out  these 
measures  puzzled  the  British  authorities.  At  length  a  plan 
was  devised  to  which  it  was  thought 
the  Americans  would  not  object. 
An  ,act  was  passed  by  Parliament  in 
1764  laying  increased  duties  on  com 
merce  and  placing  new  restrictions 
on  trade.  This  caused  much  irrita 
tion  in  Massachusetts,  the  centre  of 
American  commerce. 

In  1765  an  act  was  passed  which 
affected  all  the  colonies.    It  was  what 

A  STAMP- ACT  STAMP. 

is  known  as  a  Stamp  Act.  All  pub 
lic  documents,  legal  papers,  newspapers,  and  almanacs 
were  to  have  stamps  fixed  to  them,  as  stamps  are  now  at 
tached  to  letters.  These  stamps  were  to  be  sold.  Their 
price  varied  from  a  half-penny  to  twelve  pounds.  Legal 
papers  not  stamped  were  to  be  of  no  value  in  law. 

How  the  Stamp  Act  was  Received. — The  Stamp  Act 
met  with  little  opposition  in  Parliament.1  When  news  of  its 
passage  reached  America  there  was  an  outbreak  of  indigna 
tion.  The  people  rose  in  fury,  mobbed  the  houses  of  British 
officials,  and  hung  in  effigy  certain  unpopular  dignitaries. 

The  leading  orators  denounced  the  act  as  tyranny.  Sam 
uel  Adams  and  James  Otis  in  Boston,  and  Patrick  Henry  in 
Virginia,  vigorously  opposed  it.  Otis  had  declared,  at  the 
time  of  the  Writs  of  Assistance  trials,  that  "Taxation  with 
out  representation  is  tyranny."2  This  remark  had  become 


1  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  was  in  London  at -the  time,  fought  hard 
against  the  law,  but  said  he  might  as  well  have  tried  to  stop  the  sun 
from  setting  as  to  stop  Parliament. 

2  In  England  it  had  for  centuries  been  a  fixed  political  axiom  that 
only  the  people,  through  their  representatives,  could  vote  taxes.     The 


A  NEW   KING  AND  A  NEW   POLICY.  179 

the  watchword  of  the  people,  and  was  now  the  text  of  the 
orators.  They  did  not  hesitate  to  speak  in  the  plainest  lan 
guage,  and  their  ringing  words  roused 
the  country  from  end  to  end.1 

Sons  of  Liberty. — The  people  fully 
seconded  their  orators.  Associations 
called  "  Sons  of  Liberty"  were  formed 
to  resist  the  act.  A  congress  was  held 
at  New  York  to  which  nine  of  the 
colonies  sent  delegates.  It  issued  a 
Declaration  of  Rights  and  framed  a 

....         ,      _      ,.  PATRICK  HENRY. 

petition  to  Parliament  and  the  king. 

How  the  Stamps  were  Received. — The  act  was  to  go 
into  effect  on  the  1st  of  November,  1765.  When  that  day 

House  of  Commons  was  the  only  body  that  could  pass  revenue  bills. 
Charles  I.  tried  to  set  this  aside  and  tax  the  people  himself.  In  con 
sequence  he  stirred  up  a  rebellion  that  cost  him  his  crown  and  his 
head.  The  colonists  claimed  the  same  right.  They  had  no  represent 
atives  in  Parliament,  and  therefore  denied  that  Parliament  could  tax 
them.  They  were  willing  to  be  taxed  by  their  own  assemblies,  but  by 
no  other  power  on  earth. 

1  Patrick  Henry  was  a  young  lawyer  of  Virginia  who  had  acquired 
a  great  reputation  for  eloquence.  He  was  at  this  time  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Burgesses,  in  which  he  offered  resolutions  boldly  de'claring 
that  the  assembly  of  Virginia  had  the  sole  right  to  tax  the  people  of 
that  province,  and  that  they  were  not  bound  to  obey  any  law  not  made 
by  their  own  representatives.  His  speech  in  support  of  these  resolu 
tions  was  one  of  wonderful  eloquence.  During  its  delivery,  alluding 
to  tyrants,  he  exclaimed, — 

"  Caesar  had  his  Brutus,  Charles  the  First  his  Cromwell,  and  George 
the  Third " 

He  was  interrupted  by  cries  of  "  Treason  !  treason  !"  The  orator 
paused  a  moment,  then  added,  impressively,  "  may  profit  by  their  exam 
ple.  If  that  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it." 

This  speech  made  Patrick  Henry  famous.  He  was  the  first  Speaker 
in  the  Continental  Congress  of  1774.  He  was  governor  of  Virginia 


180  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

came  bells  were  tolled,  flags  were  raised  at  half-mast, 
and  business  was  generally  suspended.  When  the  stamps 
arrived  on  shipboard  they  were  seized  and  burned.  The 
stamp  agents  were  forced  to  resign.  Editors  published 
their  papers  with  a  skull  and  cross-bones  instead  of  the 
stamp.  Lawyers  agreed  to  consider  documents  without 
stamps  as  good  in  law.  People  determined  to  use  no  ar 
ticle  of  British  manufacture.  They  proposed  even  to  stop 
eating  mutton,  that  there  might  be  more  wool  for  weav 
ing.  In  households  throughout  the  land  the  spinning- 
wheel  and  loom  hummed  loudly  as  patriotic  women  wove 
homespun  cloth.  The  whole  country  had  risen  against 
the  law. 

The  End  of  the  Stamp  Act. — The  time  for  the  Act  to  go 
into  effect  came,  but  there  were  neither  stamps  to  use  nor 
officers  to  sell  them.  Parliament  was  astounded.  Even 
many  Americans  were  surprised.  No  such  general  and 
bitter  resistance  had  been  looked  for.  The  British  gov 
ernment  was  in  a  quandary.  English  merchants  sent  in 
petitions  for  a  repeal  of  the  law.  Their  business  was  suf 
fering  from  the  determination  in  America  to  use  no  English 
goods.  Franklin  was  examined  before  the  House  of  Com 
mons,  and  told  that  body  some  wholesome  truths.  He 
gave  the  members  plainly  to  understand  that  America 
would  never  submit.  The  great  orators,  William  Pitt  and 
Edmund  Burke,  opposed  the  law  in  Parliament.1  It  was 

from  1776  to  1779.  In  1788  he  strongly  opposed  the  ratification  by 
Virginia  of  the  National  Constitution.  He  declined  high  government 
positions  offered  him  by  Presidents  Washington  and  Adams.  He  died 
in  1799. 

1  Pitt  declared  that  Parliament  had  no  right  to  tax  the  Americans, 
and  said,  "  I  rejoice  that  America  has  resisted."  Burke  said  that  if  the 
king  tried  to  tax  the  Americans  against  their  will,  he  would  find  it  as 


A  NEW   KING  AND   A  NEW   POLICY.  181 

repealed  in  1766,  after  a  long  and  hot  debate.  America 
had  won. 

The  Right  of  Taxation. — Although  the  obnoxious  law 
was  repealed,  the  king  and  his  advisers  had  no  thought  of 
giving  up  the  fight.  Parliament  declared  that  it  had  the  full 
right  to  make  laws  binding  the  American  people.  England 
was  in  debt,  and  the  government  was  determined  that 
America  should  help  it,  and  do  so  in  the  king's  way.  George 
III.  felt  that  he  had  the  right  to  tax  America.  His  Parlia 
ment  agreed  with  him.  It  was  not  long,  therefore,  before 
new  steps  were  taken,  new  wedges,  we  may  call  them, 
driven  in  to  separate  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies. 

New  Acts  of  Oppression. — An  act  was  passed  forbid 
ding  all  trade  between  the  colonies  and  certain  West  India 
islands.  This  was  bitterly  resented  in  New  England,  for  it 
cut  off  a  very  profitable  trade.  In  1767  what  were  called 
the  Townshend  Acts  were  passed.  These  laid  duties  on 
glass,  paper,  lead,  paints,  and  teas.  The  colonists  had  paid 
port  duties  before,  said  Townshend ;  let  them  do  so  again. 
But  there  was  a  decided  difference.  The  money  to  be 
raised  by  those  duties  was  to  be  used  to  destroy  the  inde 
pendence  of  colonial  government,  and  put  the  colonists  in 
the  position  of  paying  for  their  own  enslavement. 

The  Quartering-  Act. — The  colonists  had  reasons  for 
this  opinion.  An  act  known  as  the  Quartering  Act  had  been 
passed  in  1765,  which  required  the  colonies  to  support 
troops  which  might  be  quartered  among  them.  Under  this 
law  troops  were  sent  to  enforce  the  Townshend  Acts.  Their 
coming  excited  the  highest  indignation.  The  people  were 
asked  to  shelter  and  feed  their  oppressors.  This  the  New 


hard  a  job  as  the  farmer  did  who  tried  to  shear  a  wolf  instead  of  a 
sheep. 


182 


FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 


York  assembly  refused  to  do,  and  as  a  punishment  it  was 
forbidden  to  pass  any  laws.  The  Massachusetts  assembly 
also  resisted,  and  asked  the  colonies  to  unite  for  defence. 
Nearly  all  the  other  assemblies  had  already  declared  that 
Parliament  had  no  right  to  tax  them  without  their  consent- 


FANEUIL  HALL. 

Assemblies  Dismissed. — As  a  result  of  this  decided  ac 
tion  the  Massachusetts  assembly  was  dismissed  by  order 
of  the  king,  and  during  several  years  the  other  assemblies 
were  dissolved  by  the  royal  governors  so  often  that  little 
business  could  be  transacted.1  The  people  did  nothing,  ex- 

1  The  Virginia  assembly,  when  dismissed,  used  to  meet  in  conven 
tion  in  the  large  ball-room  of  the  Raleigh  Tavern  at  Williamsburg,  and 
there  discuss  public  matters.  In  Massachusetts  legislation  was  carried 
on  to  some  extent  by  the  Boston  town-meeting  held  in  Faneuil  Hall, 
the  "  Cradle  of  Liberty,"  as  it  came  to  be  called. 


A  NEW  KING  AND  A  NEW  POLICY.  183 

cept  to  desist  from  using  English  goods ;  but  this  was 
enough  to  make  serious  trouble  in  England.  Between  1767 
and  1769  the  exports  to  New  England  fell  off  one-half;  those 
to  New  York  fell  off  five-sixths. 

Lord  North  Minister. — In  1768,  Lord  North  became 
prime  minister  of  England.  He  retained  this  position  till 
the  end  of  the  Revolution.  He  was  a  weak  man,  who  let 
the  king  have  his  own  way.  Thus  George  III.  was  the 
ruling  power  from  1768  to  1782,  and  it  was  largely  through 
his  obstinate  determination  to  force  the  colonists  to  submit 
to  his  will  that  the  Americans  were  driven  to  rebellion  and 
gained  their  independence. 

Troops  in  Boston. — In  seven  years  of  his  reign  George 
III.  and  his  Parliament  had  managed  to  convert  loyal  into 
disloyal  subjects.  In  seven  years  more  the  king  and  his 
troops  were  to  convert  irritation  into  rebellion.  Two  regi 
ments  were  sent  to  Boston  in  1768,  under  General  Gage 
(an  officer  who  had  taken  part  in  the  Braddock  expedition). 
They  were  intended  to  sustain  the  Townshend  Acts,  the  en 
forcement  of  which  had  been  resisted  in  Boston  harbor. 

How  Boston  Received  the  Troops. — The  measure  was 
a  dangerous  one,  as  was  soon  to  be  proved.  The  Bosto- 
nians  looked  upon  the  soldiers  as  enemies,  and  their  faces 
were  grim  with  suppressed  anger  as  the  troops  marched 
with  beating  drums  and  flying  flags  through  Boston  streets. 
They  were  refused  quarters,  though  some  of  them  were 
allowed  to  sleep  in  Faneuil  (fdn'tt)  Hall.  The  others  en 
camped  on  the  Common,  where  they  planted  cannon  and 
posted  sentries  as  though  they  were  in  a  conquered  city. 

The  Boston  Massacre. — The  feeling  of  irritation  grew 
daily.  No  citizen  could  pass  the  sentries  without  being 
challenged.  Quarrels  between  the  people  and  the  soldiers 
were  frequent.  At  length,  on  March  6,  1770,  an  outbreak 


184  FROM  COLONIES  TO  UNITED  STATES. 

came.  A  crowd  of  men  and  boys  threatened  a  sentry,  and 
when  soldiers  came  to  his  aid  abused  them  and  dared 
them  to  fire.  The  soldiers  at  length  fired,  killing  four 
persons  and  wounding  several  others. 

The  town  was  at  once  in  an  uproar.  The  bells  were 
rung,  and  citizens  flocked  to  the  scene.  As  news  of  the 
"  Boston  Massacre,"  as  it  was  called,  spread,  country  people 
hurried  to  the  aid  of  the  citizens.  Order  was  restored  with 
difficulty.  The  next  day  an  immense  meeting  was  held  at 
the  old  South  Meeting-House.  It  was  decided  that  the 
troops  must  leave  the  town,  and  Samuel  Adams  called  on 
the  governor  with  this  peremptory  mandate  of  the  people. 
The  order  was  obeyed.  Before  night  the  soldiers  were 
removed  to  one  of  the  islands  in  the  harbor. 

The  Soldiers  Tried. — The  soldiers  concerned  in  the  affray 
were  tried  for  murder.  John  Adams  and  Josiah  Quincy, 
earnest  patriots,  yet  who  felt  that  the  accused  had  acted  in 
self-defence,  defended  them  in  the  court.  All  were  acquit 
ted  but  two,  who  were  found  guilty  of  manslaughter.  They 
were  branded  in  the  hand. 

The  Gaspee  Burned. — In  1772  another  act  of  violence 
took  place,  clearly  showing  the  rebellious  spirit  of  the 
people.  The  Gaspee,  a  revenue  vessel,  which  had  been 
offensively  active,  ran  aground  on  a  point  in  Narragansett 
Bay  and  was  seized  and  burned.  An  order  was  received 
from  the  ministry  to  send  the  offenders  to  England  for 
trial.  This  the  chief  justice  of  Rhode  Island,  Stephen 
Hopkins,  refused  to  obey. 

A  New  Scheme  of  Taxation. — Meanwhile,  the  Town- 
shend  Acts  were  yielding  no  revenue,  and  British  trade  was 
seriously  suffering.  There  was  nothing  for  it  but  to  repeal 
the  obnoxious  laws.  Yet  George  III.  was  bent  on  estab 
lishing  his  right  to  tax  the  colonies,  and  insisted  that  the 


A  NEW  KING  AND  A  NEW   POLICY.  185 

duty  should  be  retained  on  tea.  It  had  ceased  to  be  a 
question  of  revenue  and  become  one  of  principle  in  his 
mind.  The  colonists  should  pay  taxes  at  his  dictation  ;  on 
that  he  was  determined. 

English  Tea  Refused. — The  colonists  were  equally  deter 
mined.  Tea  was  smuggled  in  from  Holland  in  large  quan 
tities.  Some  of  the  people  drank  a  decoction  of  raspberry 
leaves  as  a  substitute  for  tea.  English  tea  they  did  not  and 
would  not  use,  and  the  East  India  Company,  which  had  a 
monopoly  of  that  article,  found  its  warehouses  overstocked 
and  its  finances  in  confusion,  largely  because  the  Americans 
had  ceased  to  use  its  tea. 

The  King's  Plan. — What  was  to  be  done?  King  and 
company  alike  were  in  a  quandary.  At  length  a  cunning 
plan  was  devised.  "  There  must  be  one  tax  to  keep  up  the 
right,"  said  the  king.  Tea  paid  a  duty  of  five  pence  a 
pound  in  England.  It  was  agreed  to  take  off  this  duty,  and 
charge  the  Americans  only  the  three  pence  tax  per  pound. 
At  that  rate  America  would  get  her  tea  at  a  lower  price 
than  England,  and  obtain  cheaper  tea  than  that  smuggled 
from  Holland. 

This  was  thought  a  very  neat  device.  Orders  for  tea 
would  surely  corne  now.  But  they  did  not.  It  was  princi 
ple,  not  price,  which  the  Americans  sought  to  establish, 
and  they  were  not  to  be  driven  or  coaxed  into  paying  taxes 
of  English  origin,  even  to  save  two  pence  a  pound  on  their 
tea. 

Tea  Sent  Over. — No  orders  coming,  the  company  re 
solved  to  send  out  cargoes,  hoping  they  would  find  a  market. 
Ship-loads  were  sent  in  1773  to  various  ports,  but  they  were 
everywhere  refused.  At  Philadelphia  and  New  York  the 
ships  were  ordered  from  port  with  their  tea.  At  Charleston 
the  tea  was  landed  and  stored  in  damp  cellars,  where  it 


186 


FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 


\ 


rotted  while  awaiting  buyers.     A  private  consignment  sent 
to  Annapolis  was  burned  in  the  harbor. 

The  Tea  Ships  at  Boston. — In  Boston  the  British  officials 
refused  to  let  the  ships  return.     The  citizens  determined 
that  the  tea  should  not  be  landed.     A  guard  watched  the 
ships  day  and  night.     Samuel  Adams  was  the  leading  spirit 
on  this  occasion.     Town-meetings  were 
held,  and  the  owner  of  the  ships  was  or 
dered  to  take  them  away.     But  the  col 
lector  refused  a  clearance  to  the  ships 
and  the  governor  a  pass  to  the  captain. 
Nineteen   days   passed.     On  the  twen 
tieth  the  law  permitted  the  custom-house 
officers  to  seize  the  vessels  and  unload 
them  by  force. 

The  Boston  Tea-Party. — On  that  day, 
December  16,  1773,  a  great  town-meet 
ing  was  held.  It  was  decided  that  the 
tea  should  not  be  landed.  Evening  had 
fallen  when  Samuel  Adams  rose  and 
said,  "  This  meeting  can  do  nothing  more 
to  save  the  country." 1 

As  though  this  were  a  signal,  a  party 
of  citizens  disguised  as  Indians  gave  a 
war-whoop  at  the  door  and  rushed  down  the  street  toward 
the  wharf.     Boarding  the  vessels,  they  hoisted  up  the  tea- 


BOSTON  TEA-PARTY. 


1  Samuel  Adams,  the  leader  of  the  Boston  populace  in  the  cause  of 
liberty,  was  born  in  that  city  in  1722.  He  was  devoted  to  liberty  even 
as  a  student  at  Harvard  College.  He  was  always  poor,  but  could  not 
be  bought.  When  General  Gage  offered  pardon  to  the  Americans, 
Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock  were  excepted.  He  proposed  the 
Congress  of  1774  and  became  one  of  its  members.  Independence 
throughout  had  in  him  a  persistent  advocate.  He  died  in  1803. 


A  NEW   KING  AND   A   NEW   POLICY.  187 

chests,  three  hundred  and  forty-two  in  all,  broke  them  open, 
and  poured  their  contents  into  the  harbor.  In  two  hours' 
time  the  work  was  over  and  the  Boston  tea-party  at  an 
end.  The  tea  which  the  colonists  were  to  have  been  forced 
to  drink  had  gone  to  feed  the  fishes. 

Acts  in  Retaliation. — When  the  news  of  this  act  of  vio 
lence  came  to  England  the  king  and  his  ministers  were 
bitterly  incensed.  Instead  of  taking  warning  and  drawing 
back  before  it  was  too  late,  they  proceeded  to  new  acts  of 
oppression,  driving  the  wedge  of  separation  deeper  and 
deeper. 

Five  acts  were  passed  in  1774,  which  became  known  as 
the  "  Intolerable  Acts." 

1.  The  Boston  Port  Bill  declared  that  no  ships  should  be 
allowed  to  enter  or  leave  the  port  until  the  lost  tea  had  been 
paid  for. 

2.  The  Transportation  Bill  allowed  soldiers  or  officials 
who  might  commit  murder  in  quelling  resistance  to  the  law 
to  be  sent  to  England  or  Nova  Scotia  for  trial. 

3.  The  Massachusetts  Bill  practically  revoked  the  char 
ter,  putting  all  power  into  the  governor's  hands. 

4.  Another  bill  legalized  the  quartering  of  troops  on  the 
colonists. 

5.  The  Quebec  Act  extended  the  government  of  Canada 
over  the  country  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 

All  these  acts  were  intended  to  bring  the  colonists  more 
directly  under  control  of  the  king.  Their  ultimate  effect 
was  to  drive  them  into  revolution. 

Effect  of  the  Boston  Port  Bill. — The  closing  of  the  port 
of  Boston  caused  much  distress.  Business,  was  stopped, 
men  were  dismissed,  food  grew  scarce.  Aid  and  sympathy 
came  from  all  quarters.  Marblehead  and  Salem  offered 
Boston  the  use  of  their  wharves.  Wheat,  rice,  and  other 


188  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED  STATES. 

food  were  contributed  freely.  Money  was  donated.  The 
whole  country  sympathized  with  Boston  in  her  trouble  and 
sustained  her  in  her  resistance.1 

Committees  of  Correspondence. — In  1772  it  had  been 
ordered  that  the  judges  should  thenceforth  be  paid  by  the 
crown.  The  judges  were  threatened  by  the  colonists  with 
impeachment  if  they  dared  accept  a  penny  from  the  king. 
As  the  assembly  had  been  dissolved,  Samuel  Adams  devised 
a  plan  of  government  without  legislation.  Each  town  ap 
pointed  a  committee  to  confer  with  committees  from  other 
towns.  These  were  called  "  Committees  of  Correspond 
ence."  When  they  all  met  they  would  form  a  "  Provincial 
Congress."  In  this  way  goverment  went  on. 

In  the  spring  of  1773,  Dabney  Carr,  of  Virginia,  proposed 
and  arranged  for  Committees  of  Correspondence  between 
the  colonies.  This  was  another  step  in  advance.  A  single 
step  further  would  yield  a  Continental  Congress.  That  step 
was  taken  in  the  following  year. 

2.   THE   COLONIES   IN    REBELLION. 

Soldiers  in  Boston  Again. — If  the  real  purpose  of  George 
III.  had  been  to  drive  the  colonies  to  rebellion,  he  could  not 
have  taken  surer  methods  or  been  more  successful.  By 
1774  he  had  gone  too  far  to  draw  back.  The  colonists  had 
become  rebels  at  heart.  Little  was  now  needed  to  make 
them  rebels  in  act.  The  next  step  was  soon  taken.  Boston 
was  once  more  filled  with  soldiers.  General  Gage  had  been 


1  South  Carolina  sent  two  hundred  barrels  of  rice.  North  Carolina 
contributed  nearly  ten  thousand  dollars  in  money.  A  town  in  Massa 
chusetts  donated  two  hundred  and  fifty  sheep.  Grain,  flour,  cattle, 
fish,  and  other  supplies  came  from  elsewhere.  The  whole  country 
looked  upon  Boston  as  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of  liberty. 


THE   COLONIES  IN   REBELLION.  189 

sent  back  there  with  four  regiments  and  batteries  of  artillery. 
He  was  to  sustain  the  Boston  Port  Bill  and  keep  the  people 
in  order.  To  increase  his  authority  he  was  made  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  though  no  patriotic  citizen  ever  recognized 
him  as  such. 

The  First  Continental  Congress. — America  was  in  the 
mood  to  resist  to  the  bitter  end.  Preparation  for  resistance 
took  two  forms,  civil  and  military.  The  holding  of  a  general 
congress  was  proposed  in  Virginia  and  approved  in  other 
colonies.  On  June  17,  1774,  Samuel  Adams  rose  in  the 
General  Court  at  Salem  and  proposed  that  a  Continental 
Congress  should  be  called,  to  meet  in  Philadelphia  on  Sep 
tember  1.  His  motion  was  adopted  and  five  delegates  were 
chosen.  Two  days  earlier,  Rhode  Island  had  taken  similar 
action. 

The  other  colonies,  except  Georgia,  chose  delegates.  The 
Georgia  assembly  was  prevented  from  doing  so  by  the  gov 
ernor.  This  Congress,  composed  of  fifty-five  delegates,  met 
at  Philadelphia  on  September  5,  1774,  its  sessions  being 
held  in  Carpenters'  Hall.1  Among  the  delegates  were  George 
Washington,  Patrick  Henry,  and  Bichard  Henry  Lee,  from 
Virginia ;  Samuel  Adams  and  John  Adams,  from  Massa 
chusetts  ;  John  Jay,  from  New  York  ;  and  able  men  from  the 
other  colonies.  Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  was  chosen 
president. 

Acts  of  the  First  Congress. — This  body  continued  in 


1  Carpenters1  Hall  was  built  in  1724  by  the  Carpenters'  Company, 
composed  of  architects  and  builders.  After  being  used  by  the  Conti 
nental  Congress  it  was  employed  for  State  purposes  and  as  a  hospital 
for  sick  soldiers.  In  later  days  it  was  used  at  times  by  the  Philadel 
phia  Library,  the  Bank  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Land  Office  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  still  in  excellent  preservation,  and  is  maintained 
for  its  historical  interest. 


190  FROM   COLONIES  TO  UNITED   STATES. 

session  until  October  26,  1774.  There  was  nothing  revolu 
tionary  or  disloyal  in  its  actions.  It  professed  loyalty  to 
the  king,  but  petitioned  him  to  redress  the  wrongs  of  the 
colonies.  Addresses  were  sent  to  the  people  of  Great  Brit 
ain,  Canada,  and  the  colonies,  and  a  declaration  of  rights  was 
drawn  up,  with  an  agreement  to  stop  all  trade  with  Great 
Britain  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  slave-trade.  Representa 
tion  in  Parliament  was  not  asked  for.  It  was  not  wanted. 
What  the  Congress  demanded  was  the  right  to  make  all 
laws  (except  those  relating  to  foreign  commerce)  and  to  levy 
all  taxes  in  the  colonial  assemblies.  This  action  taken,  the 
Congress  adjourned,  having  first  provided  for  another  Con 
gress,  to  meet  May  10,  1775. 

The  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts. — To  re 
place  the  assembly  a  "  Provincial  Congress,"  which  grew 
out  of  the  "  Committees  of  Correspondence,"  met  in  Octo 
ber,  1774.  John  Hancock  was  at  its  head.  Its  proceedings 
were  distinctly  warlike.  A  Committee  of  Safety  was  ap 
pointed,  with  power  to  call  out  the  militia.  Provision  was 
made  for  the  collection  of  military  stores.  The  other  col 
onies  followed  in  the  same  spirit.  Patrick  Henry,  in  March, 
1775,  spoke  the  general  sentiment,  when  he  told  the  Vir 
ginia  convention  that  they  must  fight,  and  uttered  these 
ringing  words :  "  As  for  me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me 
death !" 

The  Existence  of  Rebellion. — The  time  had  come.  In 
February,  1775,  Parliament  declared  that  rebellion  existed 
in  Massachusetts,  and  a  fleet  and  several  thousand  ad 
ditional  troops  were  ordered  to  Boston  for  its  suppression. 
America  was  on  the  verge  of  war. 

The  Minute-Men. — There  was  some  warrant  for  the  dec 
laration  that  Massachusetts  was  in  rebellion.  Throughout 
the  colony  the  people  were  organizing  and  drilling.  Twelve 


THE  COLONIES   IN   REBELLION.  191 

thousand  militia  were  called  out  by  the  patriot  authorities, 
one-third  being  "  Minute-Men," — men  ready  to  march  and 
fight  at  a  minute's  notice. 

Munitions  of  war  were  being  gath 
ered  at  various  points.  Here  and  there 
powder  and  cannon  were  taken  from 
forts.  From  New  York  to  Savannah 
defensive  measures  were  adopted. 
The  warlike  spirit  ruled  throughout  the 
colonies. 

England  Unyielding. — It  was  prob 
ably  too  late  nOW  to  bring  America  back      REVOLUTIONARY  SOLDIER. 

to  loyalty.  But  neither  king  nor  Parlia 
ment  showed  any  disposition  to  try.  Pitt  proposed  measures 
of  conciliation.  They  were  rejected,  and  a  bill  was  passed  in 
March,  1775,  prohibiting  fishing  on  the  banks  of  Newfound 
land.  At  that  time  twenty  thousand  men  were  employed 
in  these  fisheries,  and  the  measure  was  a  severe  blow  to  the 
industries  of  New  England. 

Military  Activity. — Meanwhile,  General  Gage  was  grow 
ing  alarmed  at  the  spirit  of  the  people.  He  fortified  Boston 
Neck,  seized  certain  military  stores  which  had  been  collected 
at  Cambridge  and  Charlestown,  and  sent  an  expedition  by 
water  to  Salem,  where  he  heard  that  some  cannon  had 
been  hidden.  The  cannon  were  not  found ;  militia  faced 
the  troops  arms  in  hand ;  no  blood  was  shed,  but  the  ex 
pedition  failed. 

A  Perilous  Enterprise. — This  was  in  February,  1775. 
In  April  a  more  perilous  enterprise  was  to  be  undertaken. 
General  Gage  had  been  ordered  to  arrest  the  two  patriot 
leaders,  Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock.  He  learned 
that  they  were  then  at  Lexington,  a  village  some  ten  miles 
from  Boston.  At  Concord,  twenty  miles  away,  a  collection 


192  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

of  military  stores  had  been  made.  Gage  determined  to 
arrest  these  patriots  and  destroy  these  stores,  and  on  the 
evening  of  April  18  sent  out  what  he  intended  to  be  a  secret 
expedition  for  that  purpose. 

Paul  Revere's  Ride. — Late  that  night  eight  hundred 
regulars  marched  from  the  city.  They  had  hardly  started 
before  Paul  Revere l  and  other  mounted  messengers  were 
on  the  way  to  warn  the  people  of  their  coming.  The  pa 
triots  had  not  been  deceived.  They  had  penetrated  Gen 
eral  Gage's  secret  and  were  prepared  to  defeat  it. 

Paul  Revere  rode  swiftly  on,  rousing  the  people  as  he 
went.  At  Lexington  he  warned  Adams  and  Hancock  to 
flee.  He  was  stopped  by  a  patrol  of  British  officers  before 
reaching  Concord,  but  contrived  to  send  the  news  on. 
Hours  before  the  regulars  reached  that  town  the  bulk  of 
the  stores  were  removed. 

The  Volley  at  Lexington. — Lexington  was  reached 
about  five  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  April  19.  Major  Pit- 
cairn,  at  the  head  of  the  advance,  saw  before  him  a  body 
of  minute-men  drawn  up  on  the  village  green.  The  critical 
moment  had  come.  "  Disperse,  you  rebels  !  Throw  down 
your  arms  and  disperse !"  cried  the  major. 

The  minute-men  stood  still.  Then  the  ominous  word 
"  Fire  !"  came  from  his  lips.  A  rattle  of  musketry  followed. 
Seven  Americans  fell  dead.  With  that  discharge  the  war 
of  the  American  Revolution  began. 

1  Paul  Revere  was  an  engraver  by  trade,  and  an  earnest  patriot.  On 
the  passage  of  the  Boston  Port  Rill  he  had  ridden  to  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  with  copies  of  the  bill  printed  on  mourning  paper.  On 
this  occasion  he  is  said  to  have  waited  in  Charlestown  till  he  saw  two 
signal-lights  flash  from  the  steeple  of  the  old  North  Church.  Then  he 
mounted  and  set  out  in  haste.  The  lights  told  him  that  the  soldiers 
were  on  the  march. 


THE  COLONIES   IN   REBELLION.  193 

The  Retreat  from  Concord. — The  soldiers  hurried  on  to 
Concord,  where  they  destroyed  what  little  remained  of  the 
stores.  But  the  alarm  was  spreading,  the  people  were  gath 
ering,  every  hour  the  position  of  the  soldiers  grew  more 
dangerous.  A  fight  ensued  at  Concord  Bridge  in  which 
men  fell  on  both  sides.  The  minute-men  held  the  bridge 
and  the  regulars  began  their  retreat. 

They  had  stayed  too  long.  The  country  was  up.  From 
every  side  armed  farmers  and  villagers  hurried  to  the 
road.  From  behind  every  wall  and  fence  bullets  pouied 
upon  the  troops.  Their  retreat  became  a  flight.  Over 
that  dreadful  ten  miles  to  Lexington  they  hurried  at  all 
speed,  numbers  falling  before  the  patriot  fire. 

A  Flight  for  Life. — At  Lexington  they  found  reinforce 
ments,  and  flung  themselves  exhausted  on  the  ground, 
"their  tongues  hanging  from  their  mouths  like  those  of 
dogs  after  a  chase."  After  a  period  of  rest  the  march  was 
resumed.  It  was  still  a  race  for  life.  The  minute-men 
increased  continually  in  numbers.  The  whole  British  col 
umn  was  in  danger  of  being  cut  off.  At  length  Boston  was 
reached,  but  nearly  three  hundred  of  the  "  red  coats,"  as 
the  Americans  called  them,  lay  dead  or  wounded  along  the 
road.  .The  American  loss  was  eighty-eight. 

Boston  Besieged.— The  note  of  war  had  sounded.  The 
colonists  were  prepared.  All  that  night  minute-men 
marched  upon  Boston.  All  the  next  day  the  march  kept 
up  from  more  distant  points.  As  the  news  spread  the  peo 
ple  rose.  John  Stark,  of  New  Hampshire,  a  soldier  of  the 
late  war,  set  out  in  haste  with  a  body  of  his  neighbors. 
Israel  Putnam,1  of  Connecticut,  another  hero  of  the  war  with 


1  Israel   Putnam,  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1718,  proved 
himself  a  soldier  of  the  highest  courage  and  enterprise  in  the  French 

13 


194 


FROM  COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 


France,  left  his  work  in  the  fields,  mounted  his  horse,  and 
in  eighteen  hours  reached  Boston,  a  hundred  miles  away. 

Within  three  days  a 
force  of  sixteen  thou 
sand  men  had  gath- 


BOSTON  AND  VICINITY. 


ered,  and  the  Brit 
ish  in  Boston  were 
closely  besieged. 

The  Colonies  in 
Revolt.  —  America 
had  without  hesita 
tion  accepted  war. 
The  time  for  concili 
ation  had  passed. 
The  question  must 
now  be  settled  on  the  field  of  battle,  not  in  the  halls  of 
council.  In  its  excited  state  New  England  had  been  like 
a  powder-magazine,  which  the  first  hostile  discharge  of  a 

and  Indian  War.  His  adventures  were  many  and  striking.  At  Fort 
Edward  he  alone  fought  a  fire  that  threatened  the  magazine,  in  which 
were  three  hundred  barrels  of  powder.  He  was  scorched  into  blisters 
from  head  to  foot,  but  he  saved  the  magazine.  At  another  time  he 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians,  tied  to  a  stake,  and  a  fire  kindled 
round  him.  He  was  saved  by  a  French  officer,  who  dashed  in  and 
scattered  the  brands.  In  1779  he  made  a  famous  escape  from  a  party 
of  British  dragoons,  spurring  his  horse  down  a  stony  declivity,  which 
not  one  of  his  pursuers  dared  attempt. 


THE   COLONIES   IN   REBELLION. 


195 


British  musket  had  kindled.  As  the  news  of  Lexington  and 
Concord  spread  over  the  country  the  people  everywhere 
rose  in  response.  On  the  10th  of  May,  Ethan  Allen,  with 
a  force  of  "  Green  Mountain  Boys,"  took  Fort  Ticonderoga 
by  surprise,  and  captured  it  without  firing  a  shot.1  On  the 
next  day  Seth  Warner  captured  the  fort  at  Crown  Point. 
These  victories  gave  the  Americans  a  valuable  store  of 
cannon  and  ammunition,  which  was  sorely  needed. 

The  Second  Continental  Congress. — On  the  same  day 
that  Ticonderoga  was  taken,  Congress  met  again  in  Phila 
delphia.  Its  tone  was  markedly 
different  from  that  of  the  First 
Congress.  Under  the  presidency 
of  that  John  Hancock  whom  Gen 
eral  Gage  had  sought  to  arrest  at. 
Lexington,  it  took  decisive  steps. 
It  was  not  yet  the  Congress  of  a 
new  nation.  It  recognized  George 
III.  as  the  "  rightful  sovereign"  of 
the  American  colonies.  But  it  as 
sumed  control  of  the  siege  of  Bos 
ton,  called  for  recruits  from  Virginia 
and  the  middle  colonies,  and  chose 
George  Washington  as  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Continental  army,  as  it  was  thenceforth  called.  It  also 


1  Ethan  Allen  is  said  to  have  burst  into  the  room  of  the  commandanl 
and  demanded  an  immediate  and  unconditional  surrender  of  the  fort. 
"  By  whose  authority  ?"  asked  the  astounded  officer.  "  In  the  name 
of  the  great  Jehovah  and  the  Continental  Congress,"  thundered  the 
Green  Mountain  leader.  There  was  no  resisting  this  demand.  Later 
in  the  war  Allen  made  an  assault  on  Montreal  with  too  weak  a  force, 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  spent  several  years  in  an  English  prison. 
The  people  there  looked  upon  him  as  an  American  prodigy. 


196  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

ordered  the  issue  of  two  million  dollars  in  paper  money, 
the  first  of  the  "  Continental  currency." 

The  Provincial  Congress. — The  "  Provincial  Congress" 
of  Massachusetts  resolved  to  raise  an  army  of  thirty  thou 
sand  men,  and  appointed  General  Artemas  Ward  com 
mander  of  the  army  at  Boston.  Putnam,  Stark,  and  other 
veterans  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  received  important 
commands. 

While  this  was  doing,  fresh  troops  came  from  England. 
General  William  Howe  took  the  place  of  Gage  as  com 
mander,  and  had  under  him  a  force  of  more  than  ten  thou 
sand  men.1 

Bunker  Hill. — Howe  was  not  long  in  taking  warlike 
steps.  The  heights  in  Charlestown  known  as  Bunker  and 
Breed's  Hills  overlooked  the  city,  and  would  be  dangerous 
to  his  position  if  the  Americans  should  seize  them.  He 
resolved  to  occupy  them.  But  before  he  could  act  the 
Americans  had  preceded  him.  On  the  morning  of  June  17 
he  was  astounded  to  perceive  the  heights  intrenched  and  a 
strong  force  of  "  rebels"  behind  the  works. 

General  Ward  had  learned  or  guessed  his  plans  and  sent 
a  force  to  occupy  Bunker  Hill.  By  mistake  they  selected 
Breed's  Hill,  nearer  the  city,  and  here  all  night  long  the 
provincials  had  been  actively  wielding  the  spade.  At  day 
break  some  fifteen  hundred  men  lay  behind  the  works, 
under  Colonel  Prescott  and  Generals  Putnam  and  Warren. 

The  Battle. — At  a  glance  Howe  saw  his  danger.  He 
must  drive  the  patriots  out  or  leave  Boston  with  his  army. 

1  With  him  came  Generals  Clinton  and  Burgoyne.  "What!"  ex 
claimed  Burgoyne,  as  he  saw  the  American  intrenchments  from  the 
harbor,  "  ten  thousand  peasants  keep  five  thousand  king's  troops  shut 
up!  Let  us  get  in  and  we1!!  soon  find  elbow-room.''  Elbow-room 
they  found,  but  not  till  they  went  again  to  sea. 


THE   COLONIES   IN   REBELLION.  197 

Before  daybreak  the  ships  in  the  harbor  opened  fire  on  the 
works.  The  battery  on  Copp's  Hill  followed.  But  the 
Americans  plied  their  shovels  still. 

Noon  had  passed  before  the  British  were  ready  to  attack. 
Then  about  three  thousand  men  landed  in  Charlestown,  and 
marched  up  the  perilous  hill.  The  Americans  kept  still. 
Their  powder  was  scanty.  "Don't  fire  till  you  see  the 
whites  of  their  eyes,"  said  Prescott.  At  length  the  word 
came,  a  stream  of  musketry  poured  out,  and  hundreds  of 
the  British  fell.  Down  the  hill  they  went,  driven  as  if  by  a 
storm  of  iron  hail. 

Again  they  charged,  and  again  were  repulsed  with  heavy 
loss.  Charlestown  was  now  in  flames.  Howe  had  ordered 
it  to  be  set  on  fire.  A  third  assault  was  made,  and  this 
time  with  success.  The  Continentals  had  exhausted  their 
powder.  They  had  now  only  the  butt-ends  of  their  mus 
kets  with  which  to  fight.  Slowly  and  stubbornly  they 
withdrew,  fighting  at  every  step.  Howe  had  won  the 
works,  but  with  a  loss  of  more  than  a  thousand  men.  The 
American  loss  was  less  than  five  hundred,  many  of  them 
only  slightly  wounded.  But  one  of  their  best  men  had 
fallen,  the  patriotic  General  Warren,  whose  death  was 
deeply  felt. 

Lessons  from  Defeat. — More  than  one  lesson  was  learned 
from  this  defeat.  The  British  in  particular  learned  that  the 
Americans  could  and  would  fight.  All  through  the  rest  of 
the  war  they  were  fearful  of  attacking  American  intrench- 
ments.  Washington  was  then  on  his  way  to  Boston  to  take 
command.  On  hearing  of  how  the  Americans  had  fought, 
he  said,  "The  liberties  of  the  country  are  safe." 

"Washington  in  Command. — Under  a  great  elm  near 
Harvard  College,  at  Cambridge,  Washington  sat  on  his  horse 
on  the  morning  of  July  3,  while  the  patriot  troops  marched 


198  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

past.  He  saw  before  him  a  brave  but  undisciplined  army. 
It  embraced  about  fourteen  thousand  men,  but  many  of 
these  were  without  muskets  ;  there  were  few  bayonets ; 
cannon  were  needed ;  powder  was  very  scarce :  the  new 
commander  had  no  slight  task  to  perform.  He  set  to  work 
at  once  in  the  necessary  labor  of  drilling  and  organizing 
these  raw  troops  and  of  collecting  munitions  of  war. 

The  Invasion  of  Canada. — During  the  summer  it  was 
learned  that  the  British  in  Canada  proposed  to  send  an 
expedition  to  Northern  New  York.  To  prevent  this  Con 
gress  decided  upon  an  invasion  of  Canada.  General  Rich 
ard  Montgomery  descended  Lake  Champlain  with  two  thou 
sand  men  and  captured  Montreal.  Benedict  Arnold,  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga,  set  out  with 
twelve  hundred  men  for  a  journey  through  the  wilderness 
of  Maine. 

The  Invasion  Pails. — It  was  a  terrible  journey.  The 
men  were  six  weeks  in  the  wilds,  and  were  on  the  verge  of 
starvation  when  they  at  length  emerged  from  the  forest  into 
the  Canadian  fields.  Montgomery  soon  joined  Arnold,  and 
Quebec  was  besieged.  On  the  last  day  of  1775  an  assault 
was  made.  It  was  a  desperate  effort.  More  than  two  hun 
dred  cannon  defended  the  walls.  Montgomery  was  killed, 
Arnold  wounded,  and  the  army  repulsed.  Arnold  contin 
ued  the  siege  till  spring  from  behind  ramparts  of  snow  ; 
then,  as  reinforcements  for  the  garrison  approached,  the 
Americans  withdrew.  The  costly  effort  had  proved  an 
utter  failure. 

The  Hessians  Hired. — Congress  meanwhile  made  an  at 
tempt  at  reconciliation.  A  petition  reached  London  in  Au 
gust,  1775.  But  the  king  was  bent  on  conquest  and  refused 
to  receive  it.  He  replied  by  a  proclamation,  calling  for 
volunteers  to  put  down  the  rebellion  in  America.  As  vol- 


THE   COLONIES  IN   REBELLION.  199 

unteers  came  but  slowly,  he  hired  German  troops  for  the 
purpose,  obtaining  in  all  nearly  thirty  thousand  soldiers 
from  the  rulers  of  Hesse-Cassel  and  other  small  principal 
ities.  The  hiring  of  these  Hessians,  as  they  were  called, 
exasperated  the  Americans,  and  made  them  still  more  bit 
terly  resolved  on  winning  their  independence. 

Dorchester  Heights  Intrenched. — During  the  autumn 
and  winter  Washington  kept  up  the  siege  of  Boston.  Want 
of  powder  and  cannon  prevented  him  from  doing  more. 
At  length  fifty  cannon  reached  the  camp.  They  had  been 
dragged  on  ox-sleds  from  Ticonderoga  to  Boston,  through 
two  hundred  miles  of  country  that  was  largely  unbroken 
forest.  Their  arrival  enabled  Washington  to  take  a  decisive 
step.  Dorchester  Heights,  overlooking  Boston  on  the  south, 
remained  unoccupied.  One  night  in  March  Washington 
seized  and  intrenched  them.  The  next  morning  Howe 
beheld  these  works  with  the  same  surprise  as  he  had 
gazed  on  Bunker  Hill.  A  storm  prevented  an  attack.  By 
the  time  it  was  over  the  works  were  too  strong  to  be  taken. 

Boston  Evacuated. — Washington's  cannon  commanded 
the  city  and  the  harbor.  Nothing  remained  for  the  British 
but  to  withdraw.  This  they  did  on  March  17,  sailing  for 
Halifax  with  the  garrison  and  eleven  hundred  Tory  citizens. 
The  Continentals  marched  in.  Boston  was  a  free  city  once 
more.  No  hostile  army  ever  set  foot  in  it  again. 

The  Assault  on  Fort  Moultrie, — Washington  did  not 
remain  long  in  Boston.  In  late  April  he  marched  his  army 
to  New  York,  which  city  he  believed  would  be  the  next 
point  of  attack.  But  the  British  commanders  had  formed 
other  plans.  On  June  28  their  fleet  attacked  Fort  Sullivan 
(afterward  named  Fort  Moultrie),  on  Sullivan's  Island,  in 
the  harbor  of  Charleston. 

The  fort  was  built  of  palmetto  logs,  so  spongy  in  texture 


200  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

that  the  balls  sank  into  them  without  splitting  the  wood. 
In  vain  the  ships  poured  their  iron  missiles  upon  its  low- 
lying  walls.  Colonel  Moultrie,  in  command,  replied  so  effec 
tively  that  the  fleet  lost  heavily.  At  one  time  Admiral  Par 
ker  stood  alone  on  the  deck  of  his  flag-ship,  every  other 
man  being  swept  off.  Troops  were  landed,  under  General 
Clinton,  and  attacked  the  fort  in  the  rear,  but  the  fire  of  the 
riflemen  drove  them  away.1  The  attack  had  failed.  The 
fleet  set  sail.  Charleston  was  saved.  More  than  two  years 
passed  before  South  Carolina  again  saw  a  British  foe. 

Steps  toward  Independence. — While  these  events  were 
taking  place  the  spirit  of  revolution  was  making  rapid  prog 
ress.  The  royal  governors  of  the  colonies  found  their 
subjects  in  a  rebellious  mood.  In  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia  their  authority  was  spurned  and  arms  and  ammu 
nition  were  seized.  In  Virginia,  Lord  Dunmore,  the  gov 
ernor,  who  had  seized  powder  belonging  to  the  colony  and 
been  forced  to  return  it,  was  obliged  to  take  shelter  in  a 
British  man-of-war.  In  October,  1775,  he  attacked  Hampton 
with  a  force  of  Tories  and  negroes.  A  battle  took  place  at 
Great  Bridge,  near  the  Dismal  Swamp.  He  was  defeated, 
and  in  revenge  burned  Norfolk,  a  city  of  six  thousand  in 
habitants. 

North  Carolina  showed  marked  boldness.  In  May,  1775, 
the  people  of  Mecklenburg  County  indicated  their  opinion 
of  the  Lexington  assault  in  a  series  of  resolutions  in  which 
they  declared  themselves  free  of  allegiance  to  the  British 

1  During  the  action  a  ball  struck  the  flag-staff,  and  the  colors  fell 
outside  the  walls.  Sergeant  Jasper  boldly  leaped  down,  heedless  of  the 
plunging  balls,  seized  the  flag,  tied  it  to  a  new  staff,  and  hoisted  it  again 
to  its  place.  The  next  day  a  lieutenant's  commission  was  offered  him, 
but  he  refused  it,  saying,  "  I  am  only  a  sergeant ;  I  am  not  fit  for  the 
company  of  officers." 


THE   COLONIES   IN   REBELLION.  201 

crown.  On  April  12,  1776,  North  Carolina  authorized  her 
delegates  in  the  Continental  Congress  to  declare  for  inde 
pendence.  On  May  4,  Rhode  Island  took  a  still  bolder  step, 
and  virtually  declared  herself  independent  of  Great  Britain. 
On  May  6,  Virginia  took  similar  action.  Other  colonies 
moved  in  the  same  direction.  It  was  evident  that  the  sen 
timent  of  loyalty  was  at  an  end,  and  that  freedom  from 
Great  Britain  was  now  the  almost  universal  demand. 

Common  Sense. — In  January  the  king's  proclamation 
calling  for  volunteers  to  put  down  the  "  rebellion"  reached 
America.  Simultaneously  a  remarkable  pamphlet,  named 
"  Common  Sense,"  was  published  in  Philadelphia.  It  was 
written  by  the  celebrated  Thomas  Paine,  and  boldly  de 
clared  that  the  time  had  come  for  a  "  final  separation"  from 
Great  Britain.  It  was  read  throughout  the  colonies,  and  its 
stirring  tone  filled  all  minds  with  the  thirst  for  liberty. 
Soon  after  came  the  news  that  England  was  hiring  Hessian 
troops.  After  that  the  desire  for  independence  was  uni 
versal. 

The  Action  of  Congress. — Congress  took  its  first  action 
toward  independence  in  June,  1776,  in  a  resolution  offered 
by  Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  "  that  these  United 
Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  FREE  AND  INDEPENDENT 
STATES."  John  Adams  seconded  the  resolution.  A  com 
mittee  of  five,  consisting  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams, 
Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger  Sherman,  and  Robert  R.  Liv 
ingston,  was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  declaration  in  which 
that  resolution  should  be  suitably  embodied. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence. — Thomas  Jefferson 
prepared  the  declaration.  Lee's  resolution  was  adopted  on 
July  2  by  the  vote  of  twelve  colonies  (New  York  not  voting). 
On  July  4, 1776,  the  Declaration  of  American  Independence 
was  formally  adopted  by  Congress,  and  signed  by  John  Han- 


202 


FROM   COLONIES   TO   UNITED   STATES. 


cock,  President  of  Congress,  in  that  bold  hand  which,  as  he 
said,  "  The  King  of  England  could  read  without  spectacles." 
His  name  was  afterward  followed  by  those  of  the  other 
delegates.1  With  the  signing  of  that  document  the  thirteen 


SIGNING  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

American  colonies  of  Great  Britain  ceased  to  exist ;   the 
United  States  of  America  had  taken  their  place.2 

1  While  the  signing  was  going  on  John  Hancock  remarked,  "  We 
must  be  unanimous  ;  there  must  be  no  pulling  different  ways  ;  we  must 
hang  together.1'     "Yes, "said  Franklin,  "we  must  all  hang  together 
or  else  we  shall  all  hang  separately.1' 

2  There  is  a  legend  that  the  ringer  of  the  famous  old  State  House 
bell  waited  in  the    belfry  for  news  of  the  passage  of  the  Declaration. 
He  had  placed  his  son  in  the  hall  below  to  warn  him  of  the  event. 
•At  length  he  heard  the  boy  in  the   street,  clapping   his   hands   and 
shouting,  "Ring!     Ring!"      In  a  moment  more  the  peal  of  liberty 
sounded  far  and  wide  from  the  bell,  on  which,  as  if  by  inspiration, 
had  been  placed  the  inscription,  "  Proclaim   liberty  throughout  the 
land  unto  all  the  inhabitants  thereof."     This  bell  is  now  the  most 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  INDEPENDENCE. 


3.    THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   INDEPENDENCE. 

Howe  and  Washington  at  New  York.—  At  the  date  of 
the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  the  British 
fleet  was  hovering  off  the  harbor  of  New  York.  It  contained 
an  army  of  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  men,  under 
General  Howe.  Washington,  foreseeing  that  New  York 
would  be  the  next  point  of  attack,  had  made  vigorous  efforts 
to  fortify  that  city,  and  had  thrown  up  defensive  works  on 
the  hills  south  of  Brooklyn.  His  army,  however,  was  in 
ferior  in  number  and  much  inferior  in  discipline  and  equip 
ment  to  that  of  his  enemy. 

The  Control  of  the  Hudson.  —  The  British  military  au 
thorities  had  now  devised  a  definite  plan  of  action,  and 
Washington  had  foreseen  that  plan.  This  was  to  gain  con 
trol  of  the  Hudson  and  Lake  Champlain.  By  this  means 
New  England  would  be  cut  off  from  the  other  colonies,  and 
the  latter,  which  had  shown  less  ardor  in  the  rebellion, 
might  be  subdued,  leaving  New  England  to  be  dealt  with 
alone.  The  British  fleet  already  commanded  the  sea.  This 
movement  would  enable  it  to  control  the  land,  and  the 
colonies  would  be  cut  in  half. 

Carleton  and  Arnold.  —  This  danger  had  been  early  per 
ceived.  France  had  made  a  similar  movement  in  the  colo 
nial  war.  Montgomery  and  Arnold  had  been  sent  against 
Quebec  to  prevent  it.  Their  defeat  opened  the  route  to 
Carleton,  in  command  at  Quebec,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1776 
he  descended  Lake  Champlain  with  a  fleet  and  army  to 
attack  Ticonderoga.  Benedict  Arnold  met  him  on  October 

cherished  and  sacred  of  American  relics.  Cracked  and  voiceless,  it  is 
looked  upon  by  Americans  as  the  Palladium  of  their  liberties,  and  is 
kept  in  the  State  House  as  in  the  central  shrine  of  the  great  American 
republic. 


204  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

11  with  a  smaller  fleet,  and  a  fierce  and  obstinate  fight  took 
place.  Arnold  lost  the  battle,  but  escaped  with  his  vessels. 
He  had,  however,  gained  his  end,  Carleton  being  so  severely 
handled  that  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  purpose  and 
return  to  Montreal. 

The  Battle  of  Long-  Island. — Meanwhile,  Howe  had  been 
more  successful.  On  the  27th  of  August  he  attacked  the 
defences  on  Long  Island,  flanked  them  by  a  long  march, 
and  defeated  the  American  army,  taking  one  thousand  pris 
oners.  The  remainder  fell  back  to  the  works  on  Brooklyn 
Heights.  Here  they  lay  for  two  days,  expecting  an  attack, 
but  Howe,  remembering  Bunker  Hill,  preferred  to  try  the 
effect  of  a  siege. 

Fortunately,  the  second  night  was  dark  and  foggy.  When 
day  dawned  on  the  following  morning  the  English  looked 
for  their  foes  in  vain,  not  one  was  to  be  seen.1  Washington 
had  skilfully  carried  them  all  to  New  York  in  boats  during 
the  night.2 

The  British  Take  New  York.— The  fortifications  which 
Washington  had  built  in  New  York  were  soon  rendered 
useless.  The  British  fleet  moved  up  the  East  River  (Long 

1  A  woman  sent  her  negro  servant  to  the  British  camp  to  inform 
Howe  of  the  movements  of  the  Americans.     By  good  fortune  he  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Hessians,  who,  not  understanding  a  word  he 
said,  held  him  prisoner  till  morning.     By  that  time  his  message  was 
useless. 

2  Captain  Nathan  Hale,  a  patriot  of  the  noblest  devotion,  was  sent  by 
Washington  to  Long  Island  to  gain  information  of  the  movements  of 
the  British.     Though  disguised,  he  was  seen  and  recognized  by  a  Tory 
relative,  taken  prisoner,  and  executed  as  a  spy.     He  was  treated  with 
cruel  harshness,  being  denied  the  use  of  a  Bible,  while  his  letters  to 
his  mother   and   sister  were   destroyed.     His   last   words    have    be 
come  historical :  "  I  regret  only  that  I  have  but  one  life  to  give  to  mj 
country.1' 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   INDEPENDENCE.  205 

Island  Sound)  and  landed  troops  in  his  rear,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  make  a  hasty  retreat.  For  two  months  now  the 
armies  faced  each  other,  Washington  slowly  drawing  back 
from  point  to  point,  but  keeping  the  foe  steadily  in  check. 
The  British  defeated  a  part  of  his  army  at  White  Plains,  but 
lost  heavily  in  the  effort. 

The  Loss  of  Fort  Washing-ton. — Two  works,  Forts  Lee 
and  Washington,  had  been  built  on  the  opposite  sides  of 
the  Hudson  to  keep  back  the  British  fleet.  On  November  16, 
Howe  attacked  Fort  Washington,  the  work  on  the  New  York 
side.  Washington  had  ordered  the  abandonment  of  this  fort, 
but  his  orders  had  been  disregarded.  The  result  was  serious, 
the  British  took  the  fort  by  storm,  and  made  prisoners  of 
its  garrison  of  more  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  men. 

Fort  Lee  Evacuated. — This  was  a  severe  blow  to  Wash 
ington's  weak  army.  Fort  Lee  was  soon  after  threatened, 
but  its  garrison  had  been  wisely  withdrawn,  the  work  being 
now  useless.  The  loss  of  these  forts,  however,  did  not 
leave  the  Hudson  open  to  the  enemy.  A  new  work  had 
been  built  on  the  commanding  situation  at  West  Point. 

The  Retreat  to  the  Delaware. — Cornwallis,  a  British 
general,  had  now  crossed  the  Hudson  with  a  strong  force. 
It  was  evident  that,  having  taken  New  York,  Howe  proposed 
to  attempt  the  capture  of  Philadelphia,  the  capital  of  the 
new  republic.  Washington,  who  had  also  crossed  the  Hud 
son  into  New  Jersey,  prepared  to  oppose  this  movement, 
arid  for  this  purpose  ordered  General  Lee,  who  was  at 
Northcastle,  east  of  the  Hudson,  with  seven  thousand  men, 
to  join  him  without  delay.  Lee  disobeyed,  and  left  his  su 
perior  to  face  the  enemy  alone.1  This  Washington  did  not 

1  Charles  Lee  was  of  British  birth.  He  had  served  the  colonies  in 
the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  had  afterward  done  some  fighting  in 


206 


FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 


dare  attempt  with  his  small  force.  He  retreated  step  by 
step  across  New  Jer 
sey,  breaking  down 
the  bridges  as  he 
went,  and  constantly 
pursued  by  Cornwal- 
lis.  For  three  weeks 
this  pursuit  contin 
ued. 


Trenton 

.,  v  \  oAllentown 

\\    *  JlgBbrdentown 
Norristown          ".  -'  -&    -v\ 

Bristol 
^  Valley  "Forge 


THE  NEW  JERSEY  CAMPAIGN. 


The  Delaware  reached, 
Washington  seized  all 
the  boats  for  a  long  dis 
tance  along  that  stream, 
crossed  to  the  Pennsyl 
vania  side,  and  left 
Cornwallis  unable  to 
cross  until  the  river 
should  freeze.  Winter  being  now  upon  him,  the  British 

Europe.  Returning  to  America,  he  had  sought  to  obtain  the  chief  com 
mand  from  Congress,  and  was  disappointed  on  being  made  second  to 
Washington.  Jealousy  prompted  him  to  dishonor  and  treachery.  In 
addition  to  disobeying  orders,  he  wrote  letters  to  prominent  persons 
slandering  Washington.  After  Washington's  retreat,  he  crossed  to  New 
Jersey,  and  there,  sleeping  outside  his  army  lines,  was  taken  prisoner 
by  a  party  of  British  dragoons.  General  Sullivan  then  took  command, 
and  hastened  to  join  Washington.  It  has  lately  been  learned,  from 
the  discovery  of  Howe's  papers,  that  Lee  betrayed  the  American  cause 
while  a  prisoner,  giving  Howe  all  the  information  he  could  about 
Washington's  plans. 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  INDEPENDENCE. 


207 


commander  quartered  his  troops  in  the  villages  near  the 
Delaware,  and  waited  the  work  of  the  frost. 

Discouragement  of  the  Americans. — The  American 
cause  was  now  in  a  serious  state.  Washington's  small  army 
was  ragged  and  disheartened.  New  recruits  were  not  to  be 
had.  The  time  of  enlistment  of  many  of  the  soldiers  would 
expire  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  there  was  no  hope  that 


WASHINGTON'S  ARMY  CROSSING  THE  DELAWARE. 

they  would  re-enlist.  To  the  capture  of  New  York  had  been 
added  that  of  Newport.  Congress  had  fled  from  Philadel 
phia.  Many  persons  of  prominence  had  returned  to  their 
allegiance  to  George  III.  It  looked  as  if  the  revolution  was 
rapidly  nearing  its  end. 

The  Victory  at  Trenton. — Such  was  the  situation  near 
the  end  of  1776.  By  a  daring  stroke  Washington  completely 
changed  it,  and  brought  hope  out  of  depression.  Feeling 
that  he  must  act  at  once  or  all  would  be  lost,  he  crossed 
the  Delaware  on  Christmas-night,  in  a  storm  of  snow  and 
sleet  and  amid  the  floating  ice,  marched  his  two  thousand 


208  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED  STATES. 

five  hundred  men  nine  miles  through  the  storm,  and  at 
break  of  day  fell  upon  the  Hessian  force  stationed  at  Tren 
ton.  Taken  by  surprise,  they  made  but  little  resistance. 
Their  colonel1  fell  mortally  wounded,  and  one  thousand  pris 
oners  were  taken,  while  the  Americans  lost  but  four  men, — • 
two  of  whom  had  been  frozen  to  death.  This  done,  Wash 
ington  recrossed  the  Delaware  with  his  prisoners. 

The  Result  of  the  Victory. — This  unlooked-for  victory 
had  an  electrical  effect.  It  dismayed  the  British  ;  it  inspired 
the  Americans.  Depression  changed  suddenly  to  exulta 
tion.  Those  whose  time  was  about  to  expire  agreed  to 
remain.  New  recruits  came  in.  The  situation  had  com 
pletely  changed.  Despair  was  everywhere  replaced  by 
hopefulness. 

Howe  was  alarmed.  The  outlying  detachments  on  the 
Delaware  were  hastily  withdrawn,  lest  they  should  suffer 
the  same  fate.  Cornwallis,  who  had  gone  to  New  York  to 
sail  for  England,  with  the  belief  that  the  war  was  virtually 
at  an  end,  was  ordered  to  return  and  face  the  foe.  On  the 
2d  of  January  he  reached  Trenton,  where  Washington,  who 
had  now  recrossed  the  Delaware  with  his  whole  force,  lay 
intrenched  behind  a  small  stream. 

Washing-ton  at  Princeton. — Cornwallis  deferred  his  at 
tack  on  Washington's  breastworks  until  the  following  morn 
ing.  At  sunrise  he  was  aroused  by  a  sound  which  he 
thought  to  be  distant  thunder,  but  which  he  soon  learned  was 
the  roar  of  far-off  cannon.  Washington  had  completely 


1  Rahl,  the  Hessian  commander,  had  feasted  that  Christmas-night  at 
Trenton,  wine  and  cards  keeping  the  party  up  till  daylight.  At  dawn 
a  messenger  brought  a  note  telling  of  the  coming  of  the  Americans. 
The  servant  refused  him  admittance,  but  took  the  note  to  the  com 
mander,  who  thrust  it  unopened  into  his  pocket.  As  a  result,  the  sound 
of  musketry  first  warned  him  of  his  peril. 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   INDEPENDENCE.  209 

outgeneralled  him.  Knowing  that  he  had  not  the  force  to 
meet  the  battalions  of  Cornwallis,  he  had  marched  away  in 
the  night,  leaving  fires  burning  and  sentries  posted,  and  at 
early  dawn  had  fallen  on  a  British  force  at  Princeton.  This 
he  drove  back  in  defeat,  took  over  two  hundred  prisoners, 
and  then  marched  to  a  strong  position  on  the  heights  about 
Morristown,  where  he  defied  the  foe.1 

Results  of  the  Victory. — The  whole  British  plan  of  cam 
paign  had  been  destroyed  by  a  single  blow.  With  Wash 
ington  in  that  position,  ready  to  pounce  on  any  outlying- 
force,  Howe  was  obliged  to  withdraw  his  troops,  and  to 
give  up  for  the  time  the  purpose  to  take  Philadelphia. 

The  news  of  the  skilful  movement  of  Washington  changed 
the  feeling  in  Europe.  It  had  been  believed  that  the  Amer 
ican  cause  was  lost.  Now  the  French  began  to  consider  an 
alliance  with  the  Americans.  They  had  not  forgiven  Eng 
land  for  their  late  defeat,  and  here  seemed  an  opportunity 
for  revenge.  The  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  a  noble  young 
Frenchman,  fitted  out  a  ship  at  his  own  expense,  and 
offered  his  services  to  Congress  as  a  volunteer.  Other 
European  officers  followed  him  to  America. 

The  Campaign  of  1777. — With  the  opening  of  the  new 
year  the  British  made  vigorous  preparations  to  carry  out 
the  plans  in  which  they  had  failed  the  year  before.  These 

1  Washington  was  in  imminent  peril  at  Princeton.  A  fierce  charge 
of  the  British  threw  the  Americans  into  confusion,  and  a  panic  flight 
seemed  probable.  Washington,  who  just  then  came  up,  called  loudly 
on  the  troops  to  rally,  and  rode  forward  until  he  was  between  the  two 
lines.  A  volley  from  the  British  line  was  followed  by  one  from  the 
American,  neither  party  seeing  the  endangered  general,  who  was  con 
cealed  by  the  smoke.  When  the  smoke  lifted,  he  was  seen  sitting  his 
horse  unhurt.  Inspired  by  his  courage,  the  Americans  rushed  forward 
with  such  intrepidity  that  the  foe  was  driven  back  and  defeat  turned 
into  victory. 

14 


210  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

were  the  cutting  off  of  New  England  by  occupying  the  line 
of  the  Hudson  and  Lake  Champlain,  and  the  capture  of 
Philadelphia.  The  first  of  these  movements  was  to  be 
made  by  three  armies.  General  John  Burgoyne  was  to 
come  down  from  Canada  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  with 
a  force  of  about  nine  thousand  men.  A  second  army 
about  two  thousand  strong,  under  Colonel  St.  Leger,  was 
to  march  overland  from  Oswego,  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  to 
enlist  a  force  of  Indians  on  the  way.  Howe,  with  not  less 
than  eighteen  thousand  men,  was  to  move  up  the  Hudson 
and  unite  with  Burgoyne.  With  armies  so  strong  as  these 
success  seemed  certain,  and  it  was  hoped  that  the  "  re 
bellion"  would  be  dealt  a  crushing  blow. 

Howe's  Blunder. — There  were  two  things  in  favor  of  the 
Americans.  One  was  the  ability  of  Washington  and  his 
leading  officers.  The  other  was  the  attempt  of  the  British 
to  do  too  much.  Instead  of  confining  himself  to  the  one 
important  duty  of  aiding  Burgoyne,  Howe  proposed  to  take 
Philadelphia  first  and  help  Burgoyne  afterward.  By  at^ 
tempting  this  double  work  he  succeeded  in  ruining  the 
whole  plan  of  campaign. 

Howe  Sails  to  the  Chesapeake. — Howe  set  out  in  June 
to  cross  New  Jersey  to  Philadelphia.  But  he  found  Wash 
ington  so  alert  that  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  this  design 
and  proceed  by  sea.  The  summer  was  well  gone  by  the 
time  he  was  ready  to  set  sail.  He  had  intended  to  go  up 
the  Delaware,  but,  perhaps  fearing  obstructions  in  the  river, 
he  sailed  for  Chesapeake  Bay  instead,  and  landed  his  army 
of  eighteen  thousand  men  at  Elkton,  Maryland.1  Thence 
he  started  to  march  overland  upon  Philadelphia. 

1  From  Howe's  recently  discovered  papers  it  is  learned  that  General 
Lee  advised  him  to  take  Philadelphia,  "the  rebel  capital,  which  would 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   INDEPENDENCE.  211 

Brandy  wine  and  German  town. — Washington  made  a 
vigorous  effort  to  check  this  march.  With  an  army  of 
eleven  thousand  men  he  met  Howe  (September  11)  on 
Brandy  wine  Creek. 
Howe  proved  too  strong 
for  him,  and  he  was 
driven  back  with  con 
siderable  loss.  But  the 
defeat  was  not  a  serious 
one,  and  Washington  was 
able  to  detain  Howe  for 
two  weeks  on  his  march 

4.     nun   j   i   f  THE  CHEW  HOUSE. 

to  Philadelphia. 

The  British  were  not  left  unmolested  in  Philadelphia. 
On  October  4,  Washington  attacked  them  at  Germantown, 
just  north  of  the  city,  and  with  considerable  promise  of  suc 
cess.  But  the  British  turned  a  large  stone  house  (Chew's 
House)  into  a  temporary  fort,  and  by  their  fire  stopped 
the  American  advance.  A  dense  fog,  in  which  two  Ameri 
can  divisions  fired  into  each  other,  completed  the  disaster, 
and  a  retreat  became  necessary. 

Aid  for  Burgoyne. — But  Washington,  though  failing  to 
save  Philadelphia,  had  given  Howe  so  much  trouble  that  he 
felt  it  necessary  to  draw  more  troops  from  New  York,  thus 
leaving  none  to  send  to  the  aid  of  Burgoyne.  Eventually  a 
new  force  of  three  thousand  men,  just  arrived  from  Eng 
land,  was  sent  up  the  Hudson  under  General  Clinton  on 
the  day  of  the  battle  of  Germantown.  It  came  too  late  to 
save  Burgoyne. 


destroy  the  rebel  government."  He  also  suggested  an  expedition  up 
Chesapeake  Bay,  to  prevent  aid  being  sent  from  Virginia  or  Maryland, 
In  the  end  the  two  purposes  seem  to  have  been  combined. 


212 


FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 


WASHINGTON'S  HEAD-QUARTERS  AT  VALLEY 
FORGE. 


Valley  Forge. — As  it  was  now  late  in  the  season,  Wash 
ington  went  into  winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  on  the 

Schuylkill  River,  from 
which  place  he  could 
watch  the  movements 
of  his  foes.  The  winter 
spent  there  was  a  dread 
ful  one.  It  was  terribly 
cold,  and  the  soldiers 
sadly  lacked  shelter,  food, 
and  clothes.  On  Decem 
ber  23,  Washington  wrote 
that  nearly  three  thou 
sand  of  his  men  were 

"  unfit  for  duty,  because  they  were  barefoot  and  otherwise 
naked." 

Burgoyne's  March. — While  these  events  were  taking 
place  in  the  south,  others,  more  promising  to  the  American 
cause,  were  occurring  in  the  north.  Burgoyne,  with  nearly 
eight  thousand  regulars  and  an  additional  force  of  Cana 
dians  and  Indians,  was  descending  Lake  Champlain,  with 
the  well-devised  purpose  of  cutting  off  New  England  from 
the  more  southern  States.  General  St.  Clair  held  Ticon- 
deroga,  but  was  too  weak  to  retain  it,  and  on  the  5th  of 
July  withdrew  and  left  it  to  the  invaders.  Two  days  after 
ward  the  Americans  were  defeated  at  Hubbardton,  with 
severe  loss. 

General  Schuyler,  in  command  of  the  small  American 
army,  retired  slowly  before  the  enemy,  so  obstructing  the 
road  by  felling  trees  and  destroying  bridges  that  it  was  the 
end  of  July  before  Burgoyne  reached  Fort  Edward,  on  the 
upper  Hudson.  By  this  time  he  was  beginning  to  feel  the 
need  of  provisions  and  supplies.  At  the  same  time  the 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  INDEPENDENCE. 


213 


American  army  was  increasing.     Lincoln  and  Arnold  had 

joined  Schuyler  with  reinforcements,  and  Washington  had 

sent  him  Morgan  with  his  famous 

riflemen.     The   outrages   of  Bur- 

goyne's  Indian  auxiliaries  had  also 

stirred  up  the  people,  and  many 

militiamen  joined  the  army. 

The  Battle  of  Bennington. — At 
Bennington,  in  the  southwest  cor 
ner  of  Vermont,  the  Americans  had 
gathered  a  supply  of  stores.  These 
Burgoyne  badly  needed,  and  sent 
Colonel  Baum  with  a  force  of  one 
thousand  men  to  capture  them. 
But  the  Green  Mountain  Boys  were 
again  in  the  field,  with  the  redoubt 
able  Colonel  Stark  at  their  head. 
The  invaders  were  mostly  Hes 
sians,  and  their  commander  knew 
little  of  American  warfare.  On 
the  16th  of  August  they  found 
themselves  in  a  trap.  Stark's  men 
surrounded  them. 

"  There  are  the  red-coats  !"  ex 
claimed  the  veteran  ;  "  we  must  beat  them  to-day,  or  Betty 
Stark  is  a  widow."  Beat  them  they  did.  Of  the  whole 
force,  only  about  seventy  returned  to  Burgoyne.  The  re 
mainder  were  killed  or  captured.  The  American  loss  was 
very  small. 

St.  Leger's  March. — Meanwhile,  St.  Leger,  on  his  way  to 
reinforce  Burgoyne  at  Albany,  was  having  strange  and  serious 
adventures  in  the  forest.  Marching  southward  from  Oswego 
through  the  primeval  forest,  and  joined  on  his  way  by  the 


BURGOYNE'S  ROUTE. 


214  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED  STATES. 

famous  Mohawk  chief,  Joseph  Brant,  with  a  strong  body  of 
warriors,  his  first  task  was  to  capture  the  old  stronghold, 
Fort  Stanwix  (then  Fort  Schuyler),  on  the  Mohawk  River, 
near  the  present  site  of  Rome,  New  York. 

Battle  of  Oriskany. — The  fort  was  weakly  garrisoned. 
But  fear  of  Indian  outrages  roused  the  people,  and  a  force 
of  eight  hundred  militia,  under  General  Herkimer,  marched 
to  its  relief.  On  the  6th  of  August  they  fell  into  an  ambush 
prepared  by  Brant  in  a  deep  ravine  near  Oriskany.  An 
obstinate  battle  ensued.  Herkimer  was  mortally  wounded. 
Many  of  his  men  fell.  In  the  end  they  drove  off  the  In 
dians,  but  were  too  weak  to  advance. 

The  Stars  and  Stripes. — Meanwhile,  a  sortie  was  made 
from  the  fort,  and  St.  Leger's  camp  captured  and  sacked. 
Five  British  flags  were  taken,  and  these  were  hung  upside- 
down  above  the  fort,  while  over  them  waved  a  rude  flag 
made  of  scraps  of  a  blue  jacket  and  a  white  shirt,  with  bits 
of  red  flannel.  It  was  the  national  stars  and  stripes,  re 
cently  adopted,  and  now  first  unfolded  to  the  breeze.1 


1  In  the  battle  which  the  Virginia  militia  fought  with  Governor  Dun- 
more,  in  1775,  some  of  them  bore  a  banner  with  the  device  of  a  rattle 
snake,  and  the  injunction,  "  Don't  tread  on  me  !"  It  also  bore  Patrick 
Henry's  words,  "  Liberty  or  death."  This  flag  was  replaced  in  Massa 
chusetts  by  one  bearing  a  pine-tree,  the  favorite  emblem  of  that  colony, 
and  the  words,  "  An  appeal  to  heaven."  The  flag  hoisted  by  Colonel 
Moultrie  on  Fort  Sullivan,  in  Charleston  harbor,  was  blue  in  color, 
with  a  white  or  silver  crescent  in  the  right-hand  corner,  and  the  word 
"  Liberty."  Washington,  at  Cambridge,  used  a  flag  with  thirteen  red 
and  white  stripes  and  the  British  "  Union  Jack"  in  the  corner.  Another 
flag,  of  which  a  drawing  exists,  bore  the  thirteen  stripes,  with  a  rattle 
snake  undulating  diagonally  across  them.  Congress  first  adopted  a 
flag  in  June,  1777,  which  bore  thirteen  stripes  and  thirteen  stars  re 
placing  the  Union  Jack.  The  first  flag  of  this  pattern  was  made  by 
Betsy  Ross,  of  Philadelphia.  The  new  flag  was  first  displayed  at  sea 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   INDEPENDENCE. 


215 


RNE-TREE  FLAG. 


The  British  and  Indian  Panic. — Schuyler,  learning  of  the 
peril  of  the  garrison,  sent  Arnold  with  twelve  hundred  men 
to  its  relief.  Arnold  did  his  work  by 
stratagem  instead  of  arms.  He  held  a 
half-witted  Tory  under  sentence  of  death, 
but  promised  him  liberty  if  he  would 
seek  St.  Leger's  camp  and  scare  the  In 
dians  with  tales  of  a  great  force  of  Ameri 
cans  close  at  hand.  The  envoy  did  his 
work  well.  Running  breathless  among 
the  savages,  with  bullet-holes  adroitly 
shot  through  his  clothes,  he  declared  that 
he  had  barely  escaped  from  a  vast  host, 
indicating  their  numbers  by  pointing  to 
the  leaves  on  the  trees. 

The  Indians,  discouraged  by  their  loss 
at  Oriskany,  took  hastily  to  flight.     The 
British  followed,  in   such  a  panic  that 
they  left  their  tents  and  artillery  behind 
them,  to  become  the  prey  of  the  astonished  garrison,  who 
knew  nothing  of  the  cause  of  the  flight.     Arnold  had  de 
feated  them  by  the  mere  news  of  his  coming. 

Burgoyne  in  Difficulties. — The  loss  of  Baum  and  St. 
Leger  was  critical  to  Burgoyne.  His  Indians  were  leaving 
him.  The  emboldened  militia  were  cutting  off  his  commu 
nication  with  Lake  Champlain.  There  were  no  signs  of  aid 
from  Howe.  He  was  in  a  dangerous  situation,  in  which  it 
was  becoming  almost  impossible  either  to  advance  or  retreat. 


RATTLESNAKE  FLAG. 


at  the  mast-head  of  Paul  Jones's  ship,  the  Ranger,  was  saluted  by 
France,  February  13,  1778,  and  floated  above  the  Ranger  during  her 
battle  with  the  Drake,  April  24,  1778.  The  flag  still  bears  thirteen 
stripes,  but  a  new  star  has  been  added  for  every  new  State. 


216  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

Foes  surrounded  him  on  all  sides.  His  only  hope  seemed 
to  be  to  reach  Albany. 

Gates  in  Command. — Meanwhile,  Schuyler,  through  the 
arts  of  political  enemies,  had  been  removed  from  his  com 
mand  and  replaced  by  General  Gates,  a  man  who  showed 
himself  incapable  in  all  his  later  career.  Fortunately, 
Schuyler  already  had  Burgoyne  in  a  trap  from  which,  he 
could  not  escape. 

The  Test  of  Battle. — On  September  19  the  two  armies 
met -at  Freeman's  Farm,  below  Saratoga.  The  battle  was 
fierce  and  obstinate.  It  ended  after  nightfall  with  both 
parties  holding  their  ground.  Two  wTeeks  passed.  Bur- 
goyne's  provisions  were  nearly  gone.  He  must  fight  or 
yield.  On  October  7  he  again  attacked  the  Americans. 
Arnold,  who  had  been  removed  from  his  command,  became 
a  volunteer  leader  of  the  patriot  forces,  and  to  his  impetuous 
courage  victory  was  due.  He  fell  with  a  leg  broken  by  a 
musket-ball  just  as  victory  was  gained.  The  British  had 
lost  heavily  in  men  and  stores. 

Burg-oyne  Surrenders. — Burgoyne  retreated  to  Saratoga. 
There  he  was  surrounded  and  hotly  besieged.  His  provisions 
were  gone.  The  Indians  and  Tories  had  deserted.  Clinton 
had  not  appeared.  Only  one  thing  remained  to  do.  On 
the  17th  he  surrendered  the  remnant  of  his  army  to  General 
Gates.1 

Results  of  the  Surrender. — The  battle  of  Saratoga  has 
been  classed  among  the  fifteen  decisive  battles  of  the  world's 
history.  The  surrender  of  Burgoyne  was  the  turning-point 
in  the  struggle  for  independence.  The  result  filled  the 


1  Burgoyne  had  boasted  that  he  would  eat  his  Christmas-dinner  in 
Albany.  He  ate  dinner  there  before  Christmas — as  a  prisoner  and  the 
guest  of  General  Schuyler. 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   INDEPENDENCE.  217 

Americans  with  joy  and  confidence.  It  filled  the  English 
with  despair.  At  one  blow  a  third  of  their  army  in  America 
had  vanished,  and  the  well-laid  plan  of  the  king  and  min 
istry  had  utterly  failed.  Hopeless  of  success,  Lord  North 
sought  for  peace,  offering  the  Americans  everything  they 
had  asked  except  independence.  He  was  too  late.  Inde 
pendence  was  the  one  thing  they  were  determined  to  have  ; 
with  that  all  the  others  would  come. 

A  Treaty  with  France. — Meanwhile,  Dr.  Franklin  was 
doing  excellent  work  in  France.  Highly  esteemed  there 
for  his  character  and  his  scientific  and  literary  work,  he  had 
great  influence  at  court,  which  he  employed  to  obtain  aid 
and  alliance.  The  defeat  of  Burgoyne  won  him  success. 
On  February  6,  1778,  a  treaty  was  signed  with  France  in 
which  that  nation  recognized  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  and  promised  vital  aid  to  the  American  cause. 

The  Conway  Cabal. — In  the  mean  time  Washington — 
whose  suffering  army  lay  at  Valley  Forge  almost  destitute 
of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  decimated  by  disease,  and 
tracking  the  frozen  ground  with  blood  from  their  bare  feet 
— was  being  hounded  by  enemies  in  high  places.  An  in 
trigue  was  organized  to  force  him  to  resign  his  command 
and  yield  it  to  Gates,  then  in  high  favor.  This  was  known 
as  the  "  Conway  Cabal,"  from  the  name  of  one  of  the  plot 
ters.  Fortunately  for  the  country  it  utterly  failed.  It  suc 
ceeded,  however,  in  influencing  many  members  of  Congress 
against  Washington,  and  the  sufferings  of  the  army  were 
not  due  to  want  of  means,  but  to  shameful  interference  with 
and  mismanagement  of  the  department  of  supplies.  Con 
gress  had  ceased  to  be  the  wise  and  patriotic  body  of  1776, 
and  was  imperilling  the  country  by  its  ignorance  of  and  its 
meddling  with  military  matters. 

Aid  from  Prance. — In  1778  the  British  cause  in  America 


218  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

declined.  Two  months  after  signing  the  treaty  of  alliance, 
France  sent  over  a  powerful  fleet  under  Count  d'Estaing, 
having  on  board  four  thousand  troops.  It  had  at  last  an 
opportunity  to  repay  Great  Britain  for  the  humiliating  treaty 
of  fifteen  years  before. 

D'Estaing  reached  Delaware  Bay  in  July.  He  hoped  to 
capture  the  British  fleet,  but  it  had  taken  the  alarm  and 
sailed  away.  But  the  news  of  his  coming  drove  the  British 
from  Philadelphia,  where  they  had  spent  the  winter  in  a 
comfort  which  was  in  striking  contrast  to  the  condition  of 
the  starving  army  at  Valley  Forge. 

The  British  Leave  Philadelphia. — Sir  Henry  Clinton  had 
succeeded  Howe  in  command  of  the  British  forces.  On 
June  18,  in  dread  of  being  shut  up  between  the  Americans 
and  French,  he  evacuated  Philadelphia.  Washington,  who 
was  keenly  alert  to  every  movement  of  the  enemy,  pursued 
in  haste.  Despite  the  suffering  of  the  army  during  the  win 
ter,  it  was  better  disciplined  than  ever  before.  Baron  Steu- 
ben,  a  skilled  Prussian  soldier,  had  actively  drilled  it,  and 
had  brought  the  American  troops  up  to  the  full  efficiency  of 
British  regulars.1 

The  Battle  of  Monmouth. — The  British  were  overtaken 
at  Monmouth  (now  Freehold)  on  June  28,  and  a  battle  en 
sued.  Victory  was  lost  through  the  misconduct  of  Gen 
eral  Charles  Lee,  who  had  been  exchanged 2  and  now  led 


1  Steuben  began  with  one  hundred  and  twenty  men,  whom  he  drilled 
twice  daily,  showing  them  how  the  musket  should  be  used  by  taking  it 
in  his  own  hands.    Hitherto  their  only  use  for  the  bayonet  had  been  to 
roast  their  meat  on  it.    During  the  next  year  they  took  Stony  Point 
with  the  bayonet  alone.     Steuben  had  received  his  military  education 
in  the  best  school  in  Europe,  that  of  the  army  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

2  General  Lee's  exchange  had  arisen  from  a  daring  act.     General 
Prescott,  in  command  of  the  British  forces  in  Rhode  Island,  had,  like 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   INDEPENDENCE.  219 

the  advance.  He  ordered  a  retreat  just  when  success  was 
most  promising.  Washington  rode  up  at  that  moment, 
burst  into  one  of  his  rare  fits  of  anger,  and  bitterly  rebuked 
Lee.  Then  rallying  the  men,  he  led  them  against  the  foe. 
Clinton  was  driven  back,  and  at  midnight  secretly  withdrew 
his  forces  to  Sandy  Hook,  whence  he  made  his  way  to  New 
York.1  Lee  was  tried  by  court-martial,  suspended  from 
command,  and  finally  expelled  from  the  army. 

The  French  Fleet. — The  battle  of  Monmouth  was  the 
last  important  contest  in  the  Northern  States.  For  the  re 
mainder  of  the  war  the  chief  seat  of  conflict  was  at  the 
South.  But  there  were  several  events  that  need  mention. 
On  leaving  Delaware  Bay,  Count  d'Estaing  sailed  for  New 
York,  hoping  to  capture  it,  but  found  that  his  largest  ships 
could  not  cross  the  bar.  Thence  he  sailed  to  Newport,  the 
only  other  place  which  the  British  held.  Here  a  storm  in 
jured  his  vessels  and  he  sailed  to  Boston  to  refit.  General 
Sullivan,  who  was  prepared  to  co-operate  with  a  land  force, 
was  in  consequence  obliged  to  retreat,  leaving  Newport  still 
in  British  hands. 

The  Massacre  of  "Wyoming. — In  July  a  band  of  Indians 
and  Tories  entered  the  beautiful  and  peaceful  valley  of 
Wyoming,  in  Northern  Pennsylvania,  and  committed  fright- 
Lee  himself,  become  negligent,  and  a  plan  was  laid  for  his  capture. 
Colonel  Rarton  rowed  to  the  vicinity  of  his  quarters  in  whale-boats, 
broke  in,  and  carried  the  general  off,  from  amid  his  troops  and  fleet. 
Howe  willingly  exchanged  Lee  for  him,  perhaps  believing  that  he  would 
be  of  more  value  to  the  Rritish  cause  free  than  a  prisoner. 

1  During  the  day  Moll  Pitcher,  the  wife  of  an  artilleryman,  while 
bringing  water  to  her  husband,  saw  him  fall  at  his  gun.  Dropping  her 
pail,  she  ran  to  the  gun,  seized  the  rammer,  and  served  the  piece  with 
the  ability  of  an  expert.  She  was  afterward  known  by  the  soldiers  as 
Major  Molly,  and  given  a  sergeant's  commission  by  Cpngress,  with  half- 
pay  pension. 


220  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

ful  devastations.  The  settlers  were  defeated  and  butchered, 
the  dwellings  and  mills  committed  to  the  flames,  and  the 
women  and  children  forced  to  flee  for  their  lives  into  the 
wilderness.  The  village  of  Cherry  Valley,  New  York,  met 
with  a  similar  fate,  and  numerous  other  atrocities  were  com 
mitted. 

Clark's  Operations  in  the  "West. — There  were  serious 
Indian  depredations  also  on  the  western  frontier.  Governor 
Hamilton,  of  Detroit,  sent  out  marauding  bands,  whom  he 
paid  for  all  scalps  brought  in.  His  work  of  butchery  was 
brought  to  an  end  by  Colonel  George  Rogers  Clark,  a  Ken 
tucky  hunter,  who  with  less  than  two  hundred  men  marched 
far  through  the  wilderness,  captured  Kaskaskia  and  Caho- 
kia,  in  Illinois,  and  marched  against  Hamilton,  then  at  Vin- 
cennes,  on  the  Wabash.  He  was  successful  in  capturing 
the  town  and  the  fort  and  in  making  Hamilton  prisoner. 
This  success,  it  is  thought,  saved  the  northwest  to  the  United 
States  in  the  subsequent  treaty  of  peace. 

The  Indians  Punished. — The  policy  of  employing  the 
Indians,  and  of  inciting  them  to  torture  and  massacre,  pur 
sued  by  the  British,  met  with  many  opponents  in  England.1 
In  1779  Congress  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  it  by  rendering 
the  Six  Nations  incapable  of  further  mischief.  An  expedi 
tion  was  sent  against  them  under  General  Sullivan.  The 
Indians  laid  an  ambush  for  him  at  the  site  of  Elmira,  but 
were  defeated  with  overwhelming .  loss.  He  then  marched 
into  their  country  and  utterly  devastated  it,  burning  more 
than  forty  villages,  destroying  their  orchards  and  granaries, 
and  leaving  them  without  food  or  shelter  in  the  severe 


1  Pitt  denounced  in  Parliament  the  employment  of  Hessians  and  sav 
ages.  "  If  I  were  an  American,  as  I  am  an  Englishman,"  he  exclaimed, 
"  while  a  foreign  troop  was  landed  in  my  country,  I  never  would  lay 
down  my  arms, — never,  never,  never!" 


THE   STRUGGLE   FOR   INDEPENDENCE.  221 

winter  that  followed.  The  blow  was  one  from  which  they 
never  recovered,  and  there  was  no  more  trouble  with  the 
Indians  during  the  war. 

Storming-  of  Stony  Point. — One  further  important  affair 
took  place  in  the  North  during  1779.  Washington  planned 
an  assault  on  the  British  fort  at  Stony  Point,  on  the  Hudson, 
and  it  was  brilliantly  carried  out  by  General  Anthony  Wayne. 
The  fort  was  taken  by  surprise,  Wayne  and  his  men  march 
ing  on  a  dark  night,  with  unloaded  muskets,  over  the  cause 
way  that  led  through  the  marshes  to  the  fort.  Then  ascend 
ing  the  hill,  they  rushed  on  the  works  with  the  bayonet, 
and  in  a  few  minutes  the  fort  was 
theirs  and  its  garrison  were  prisoners. 
Removing  the  valuable  stores,  they 
destroyed  the  works  and  returned  to 
camp.  The  fort  at  Paulus  Hook  (on 
the  site  of  Jersey  City)  was  taken 
in  the  same  manner.  These  suc 
cesses  put  an  end  to  the  marauding 
expeditions  which  Clinton  was  send 
ing  into  Connecticut. 

^      .  ANTHONY  WAYNE. 

A   Great  Ocean  Victory. — During 

the  years  named  the  Americans  had  done  little  on  the  ocean. 
Privateers  had  taken  numerous  prizes,  but  the  lack  of  war 
vessels  prevented  any  further  success.  In  1779  there  was 
a  change.  Paul  Jones,  a  bold  seaman  of  Scotch  birth,  made 
a  daring  raid  on  the  British  coast,  where  he  burned  shipping 
lying  in  harbor.  On  September  23,  being  then  in  command 
of  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  and  some  smaller  ships,  sup 
plied  by  France,  he  met  a  British  merchant  fleet  convoyed 
by  the  frigate  Serapis  and  a  smaller  consort. 

The  Richard  was  much  inferior  to  the  Serapis  in  weight 
of  guns  and  general  efficiency.     But  it  had  Paul  Jones  for 


222  FROM   COLONIES  TO  UNITED  STATES. 

commander,  a  man  who  did  not  know  when  he  was  whipped. 
As  the  battle  went  on  the  ships  met  and  were  lashed  together. 
The  fighting  now  became  desperate. 
The  Richard  was  riddled  by  the 
guns  of  the  Serapis,  and  was  filling 
with  water,  while  its  upper  works 
were  on  fire.  But  Jones  fought  on 
unyieldingly.  In  the  end  the  Sera- 
pis  was  forced  to  surrender,  nearly 
its  whole  crew  being  killed  or 
wounded.  Commodore  Jones  trans 
ferred  his  men  and  colors  to  the 
prize  and  left  the  Richard  to  the 

waves,  into  which  it  soon  sank.  The  spirit  of  this  remark 
able  man  is  shown  by  his  reply  to  the  captain  of  the  Serapis, 
who  hailed  him  in  the  height  of  the  battle  and  asked  if  he 
had  struck  his  colors.  Jones  roared  back  through  the  din, 
"  I  have  not  yet  begun  to  fight." 

A  Statement  of  Results. — Four  years  of  war  in  the 
North  had  passed,  and  all  the  Rritish  had  to  show,  in 
return  for  their  strenuous  efforts  and  costly  armaments, 
was  the  possession  of  two  towns,  New  York  and  Newport. 
For  these  they  had  paid  far  more  than  the  towns  were 
worth.  The  colonists  had  withstood  them  successfully, 
but  not  without  great  loss  and  suffering.  Their  armies 
were  poorly  sustained,  the  men  poorly  clad  and  fed,  Wash 
ington  feebly  seconded  in  his  efforts,  the  people  at  times 
greatly  depressed  and  despairing.  Yet  for  all  this  there 
seems  to  have  been  no  absolute  need. 

The  true  strength  of  the  colonies  was  really  never  put 
forth.  The  Continental  Congress  grew  weaker  as  it  grew 
older.  The  wisdom  of  its  early  councils  was  replaced  by 
feebleness  and  inefficiency.  Its  members  listened  to  de- 


THE  WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH.  223 

tractions  of  Washington  and  hampered  him  in  his  efforts. 
The  energetic  Schuyler  was  replaced  at  the  moment  of 
victory  by  the  feeble  Gates.  The  treacherous  Lee  was 
again  made  second  in  command.  The  army  was  needlessly 
allowed  to  starve  and  freeze  at  Valley  Forge.  The  paper 
money  issued  was  sustained  by  no  regular  system  of  taxa 
tion,  and  rapidly  sank  in  value.  No  effort  was  made  for  a 
close  union  of  the  colonies,  and  they  drifted  apart  rather 
than  flowed  together.  There  was  no  unity  of  effort,  no 
central  authority,  no  definite  system  of  finance.  Of  the 
people,  the  mass  of  them  worked  quietly  on  their  farms, 
knowing  of  the  war  only  as  news  of  distant  operations,  and 
not  supporting  it  as  they  might  have  done  under  a  better 
administration  of  affairs.  Thus,  under  this  loose  combina 
tion  of  thirteen  colonies,  each  working  by  itself  and  some 
doing  very  little  for  the  cause,  the  one  thing  surprising  is 
that  the  invaders  made  so  little  progress.  It  was  mainly 
due  to  two  things, — the  inefficiency  of  their  generals  and 
officials,  and  the  masterly  generalship  of  the  American 
commander,  George  Washington. 

4.  THE   WAR   IN   THE   SOUTH. 

The  British  go  South. — As  if  despairing  of  success  in  the 
North,  the  British  now  turned  their  attention  to  the  South, 
hoping  probably  to  capture  and  hold  the  Southern  colonies. 
In  December,  1778,  Savannah  was  attacked  in  force  and 
easily  taken.  Augusta  was  next  captured,  and  the  thinly- 
settled  Georgia  fell  under  British  control.  Prevost,  the 
British  general,  now  advanced  against  Charleston,  but  find 
ing  himself  pursued  by  General  Lincoln,  in  command  of 
the  American  militia,  he  hastened  to  return. 

The  Repulse  at  Savannah. — Nothing  further  of  impor 
tance  was  done  until  September,  1779,  when  General  Lin- 


224  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED  STATES. 

coin,  aided  by  the  French  fleet  under  D'Estaing,  attempted 
to  recapture  Savannah.  The  effort  proved  disastrous.  In 
the  assault  more  than  a  thousand  men  were  slain  and  the 
Americans  repulsed.  Among  the  dead  was  Count  Pulaski, 
a  noble  Pole  who  had  joined  the  American  cause.  The 
brave  Sergeant  Jasper  also  fell,  in  his  hands  the  banner 
which  his  regiment  had  received  at  Fort  Moultrie. 

The  Loss  of  Charleston. — Georgia  having  been  subdued, 
the  British  turned  their  strength  against  South  Carolina. 
In  the  spring  of  1780  General  Clinton  led  a  powerful  force 
against  Charleston,  then  defended  by  General  Lincoln. 
Attacked  by  land  and  sea,  besieged  for  forty  days,  and  for 
forty-eight  hours  exposed  to  a  bombardment  from  two 
hundred  cannon,  Lincoln  was  at  length  forced  to  surrender, 
and  on  May  12  the  leading  city  of  the  South  fell  into  British 
hands. 

South  Carolina  Overrun. — Clinton  now  returned  north, 
leaving  Cornwallis  in  command.  He  prepared  to  overrun 
South  Carolina,  as  his  predecessor  had  Georgia.  Expe 
ditions  were  sent  in  several  directions  through  the  State, 
the  only  efficient  resistance  being  that  made  by  the  partisan 
commanders,  Marion,  Sumter,  Pickens,  and  others,  who  at 
the  head  of  small  but  active  forces  greatly  annoyed  the  in 
vaders,  cut  off  detachments,  and  made  South  Carolina  a 
very  hot  place  to  hold.  On  the  British  side  the  main  suc 
cess  was  due  to  the  hard-riding  Colonel  Tarleton,  whose 
daring  was  vitiated  by  ruthless  cruelty. 

Gates  Defeated. — Meanwhile,  with  great  exertions,  an 
army  had  been  collected  in  North  Carolina  and  placed 
under  the  command  of  General  Gates,  who  was  still  given 
credit  as  "  the  conqueror  of  Burgoyne.1'  The  two  armies 
met  at  Cam  den,  in  South  Carolina,  on  August  16,  1780. 
In  the  battle  that  ensued  the  militia  broke  before  the 


THE  WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH.  225 

charge  of  the  British  regulars,  and  the  few  Continental 
regiments  were  overwhelmed.  No  American  army  ever 
suffered  a  worse  defeat.  The  militia  were  completely  scat 
tered,  Gates  being  seen  soon  afterward  eighty  miles  distant 
and  without  a  soldier.  Two  days  later  Sumter's  forces 
were  met  and  almost  annihilated  by  Tarleton's  dragoons. 
When  summer  ended  South  Carolina  was  at  the  mercy  of 
Cornwallis,  the  only  resistance  left  being  that  of  Marion  and 
his  fellow-partisans. 

Tory  Warfare. — The  Carolinas  were  full  of  Tories,  many 
of  whom  joined  the  British  army,  while  others  plundered 
and  murdered  their  patriot  neighbors.  Against  these  the 
partisan  warfare  was  largely  directed.  On  October  7  a 
force  of  eleven  hundred  British  and  Tories  was  attacked  at 
King's  Mountain  by  hastily  gathered  frontier  riflemen,  and 
utterly  defeated,  four  hundred  and  fifty-six  being  killed 
and  wounded  and  the  rest  taken  prisoners. 

Marion's  Method. — Marion,  the  most  famous  of  the  par 
tisan  leaders,  had  but  a  small  force  under  his  command, 
and  lurked  in  swamps  and  forests,  sallying  out  unexpect 
edly  upon  detached  bands.  In  this  way  the  foe  were  bit 
terly  annoyed,  and  lost  heavily  in  the  aggregate  from  these 
stinging  attacks,  for  which  they  in  vain  sought  revenge. 
Marion  was  only  to  be  found  when  he  was  ready  to  strike.1 


1  Among  the  interesting  anecdotes  told  of  this  active  warrior  is  the 
following :  A  British  officer,  who  had  been  sent  to  negotiate  an  ex 
change  of  prisoners,  found  Marion  on  a  sort  of  woodland  island  in  the 
swamps,  and  was  invited  by  him  to  dine.  The  dinner  consisted  of 
sweet  potatoes,  roasted  and  served  on  bark  platters.  The  officer  was 
surprised  to  learn  that  his  host  considered  this  as  ample  diet,  that  he 
often  fared  worse,  and  at  that  time  had  neither  blanket  nor  hat.  On 
his  return  the  officer  resigned  his  commission,  saying  that  it  was 
useless  to  fight  against  men  who  made  war  on  fare  like  this. 

15 


226  FROM  COLONIES  TO   UNITED  STATES. 

The  Treason  of  Arnold. — While  these  events  were  taking 
place  in  the  South,  a  startling  occurrence  had  happened  in 
the  North,  the  most  saddening  event  of  the  Revolution. 
Benedict  Arnold,  the  trusted  friend  of  Washington,  one  of 
the  ablest  of  the  American  generals,  and  the  true  winner 
of  the  victories  at  Saratoga,  had  turned  traitor.  He  had 
agreed  to  surrender  West  Point,  of  which  he  was  in  com 
mand,  to  the  British. 

Though  brave  and  able  as  a  general,  he  was  weak 
morally.  He  believed  that  he  had  been  ill-treated  by  Con 
gress,  and,  marrying  a  Tory  lady  in  1778,  his  patriotism 
weakened.  He  grew  so  extravagant  and  behaved  so  badly 
that  he  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  be  reprimanded  by  the 
commander-in-chief.  Washington  did  this  gently,  and  at 
Arnold's  request  gave  him  the  command  of  the  fortress  at 
West  Point, — a  post  of  great  importance  from  its  control  of 
the  Hudson. 

The  Capture  of  Andre*. — Full  of  revengeful  feelings,  Ar 
nold  proposed  to  Clinton  to 
surrender  this  post  to  the  Brit 
ish.  Major  Andre  was  sent 
to  confer  with  him.  They  had 
a  secret  meeting  and  arranged 
their  plans,  but  Andre  was 
obliged  to  return  by  land.  On 

his  way  he  was  captured  by 
three    patriot    scouts,    who 

searched  him  and  found  in  his  boot  papers  that  proved  him 
a  spy. 

Arnold's  Reward. — Word  reached  Arnold  of  Andre's 
capture,  and  he  fled  in  haste  to  a  British  vessel  in  the  river. 
Andre  was  hanged  as  a  spy,  despite  all  Clinton's  efforts  to 
obtain  his  release.  Arnold  received  a  money  reward  for 


THE  WAR   IN   THE   SOUTH.  227 

his  treason,  was  made  a  colonel  in  the  British  army,  and 
helped  to  harry  the  land  he  had  aided  to  defend.  He  won 
the  contempt  even  of  his  new  associates,  and  died  twenty 
years  after  in  shame  and  remorse. 

Greene  in  Command   in  the    South. — Meanwhile,  the 
gloom    of  the   Southern   situation   was   beginning   to   lift. 
Gates  had  been  removed  from  com 
mand,  and  replaced  by  General  Na 
thaniel  Greene, — next  to  Washington 
the  ablest  of  the  American  generals. 
Under  him  were  three  excellent  offi 
cers  of  Virginian  birth, — Daniel  Mor 
gan,   the    famous   riflemen    leader; 
William    Washington,   a   cousin   of 
the  commander-in-chief ;  and  Henry 
Lee,  known  in  the  army  as  "Light-    GENERAL NATHANIEL GREENE. 
Horse  Harry," — father  of  the  famous 

General  Lee  of  the  Civil  War.  One  thing  was  wanted,  an 
army.  This  Greene  was  obliged  to  make.  He  succeeded, 
after  earnest  efforts,  in  gathering  about  two  thousand  men, 
who  were  half  clothed  and  half  supplied. 

The  Battle  at  Cowpens. — The  first  conflict  took  place  at 
Cowpens,  South  Carolina,  where,  on  January  17,  1781, 
Morgan  with  nine  hundred  men  met  a  superior  force  under 
Tarleton,  which  he  nearly  annihilated,  with  scarcely  any 
loss  on  his  own  side.1 


1  Tarleton  made  a  narrow  escape  from  capture  at  Cowpens,  and  was 
wounded  by  a  blow  from  Colonel  Washington's  sword.  Some  time 
after  he  remarked  in  a  company  of  South  Carolina  ladies,  "  I  have 
been  told  that  Colonel  Washington  is  very  illiterate,  and  can  scarcely 
write  his  name."  "  At  least,"  said  one  of  the  ladies,  "  he  can  make 
his  mark"  At  another  time  he  remarked  that  he  would  like  to  see 
Colonel  Washington.  "  You  might  have  had  that  pleasure,"  said  the 


228  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

Greene's  Retreat. — Tarleton  fled  to  Cornwallis,  who 
hastily  pursued,  but  failed  to  overtake  Morgan,  then  rap 
idly  retreating  with  his  prisoners.  Greene  joined  him  and 
conducted  a  skilful  retreat  to  the  Dan  River,  which  he 
reached  and  crossed  in  advance  of  the  foe.1  Cornwallis 
now  gave  up  the  pursuit  and  retired,  but  soon  found  Greene 
on  his  track,  harassing  him  at  every  step.  He  had  skilfully 
drawn  the  foe  far  from  his  base  of  supplies,  and  succeeded 
in  making  his  return  very  uncomfortable.2 

Guilford  Court-House. — At  Guilford  Court-House  (now 
Greensborough,  North  Carolina)  Greene  felt  strong  enough 
to  venture  a  battle  (March  15).  The  militia  fled,  but  the 
Continental  regulars  held  their  ground.  In  the  end  they 
were  forced  to  retreat,  but  had  handled  the  British  so 
roughly  that  there  was  no  disposition  to  pursue.  It  was  a 
defeat  that  had  all  the  effect  of  a  victory.  Cornwallis,  his 
army  badly  cut  up  and  in  no  condition  for  a  further  fight, 
was  forced  to  retreat  to  Wilmington,  North  Carolina,  which 
he  reached  in  very  bad  plight. 


same  witty  lady,  "  if  you  had  looked  behind  you  at  the  battle  of  the 
Cowpens." 

1  Morgan  crossed  the  Catawba  just  as  Cornwallis  appeared.    That 
night  it  was   swollen  by  rain,  detaining  the   pursuers  three   days. 
Greene  now  joined  him  and  they  retreated  to  the  Yadkin,  which  also 
became  swollen  after  they  crossed.     Then  a  hot  march  took  place,  on 
parallel  roads,  for  the  fords  of  the  Dan.     Greene  reached  them  first. 

2  On  one  occasion,  during  Greene's  campaign,  he  reached  a  tavern 
at  Salisbury,  North  Carolina,  after  midnight,  wet  to  the  skin  with  the 
heavy  rain.     Steele,  the  landlord,  asked  him  in  surprise  if  he  was 
atone.     "Yes,"  he  said,  "tired,  hungry,  alone,  and  penniless."     Mrs. 
Steele,  who  heard  him,  hastened  to  set  before  him  a  smoking  hot  meal. 
Then  she  drew  two  bags  of  silver  from  under  her  apron  and  held  them 
out  to  her  guest.     "  Take  these,"  she  said ;  "  you  need  them  and  I  can 
do  without  them." 


THE  WAR   IN  THE  SOUTH.  229 

Battle  of  Hobkirk's  Hill. — After  pursuing  Cornwallis 
for  some  distance,  Greene  turned  and  made  a  long  march 
of  two  hundred  miles  into  South  Carolina,  encamping  on 
Hobkirk's  Hill,  near  Camden,  where  Lord  Rawdon  was  in 
command.  Here,  in  junction  with  Marion,  Sumter,  and 
Pickens,  he  was  attacked  by  Rawdon  on  April  25  and  de 
feated  after  a  sharp  struggle.  It  was  another  defeat,  how 
ever,  that  had  the  effect  of  a  victory,  and  Rawdon  soon 
found  it  expedient  to  withdraw  from  Camden. 

South  Carolina  Regained. — During  the  summer  Greene 
took  post  after  post,  and  on  September  8  met  the  enemy  at 
Eutaw  Springs.  Here  again  he  was  driven  from  his  posi 
tion,  but  during  the  night  the  Rritish  retreated,  hurrying 
toward  Charleston.1  So  active  was  Greene,  and  so  efficient 
the  aid  of  Marion,  Sumter,  Lee,  and  others,  that  by  the  close 
of  the  year  the  British  were  shut  up  in  Charleston  and 
Savannah,  and  the  States  of  the  South  were  recovered. 

The  Campaign  in  Virginia. — Meanwhile,  Cornwallis  had 
decided  to  march  to  Virginia,  where  active  warfare  was  then 
in  progress,  reinforce  himself  with  the  troops  there,  and 
return  to  recover  his  lost  ground.  Arnold  was  in  command 
there,  treating  his  countrymen  as  though  they  were  his 
bitterest  foes.  Lafayette  had  taken  the  field  against  him, 
but  with  a  force  too  weak  to  hold  him  in  check.  Cornwallis 
now  took  chief  command,  destroyed  all  before  him,  and  in 


1  At  this  battle  a  soldier  of  Lee's  legion,  named  Manning,  while  in 
pursuit  of  flying  foes,  found  himself  suddenly  in  the  midst  of  the 
enemy  with  not  an  American  near.  Without  hesitation  he  seized  an 
officer  by  the  collar,  wrested  from  him  his  sword,  and  backed  off, 
drawing  him  along  as  a  shield.  "  I  am  Sir  Henry  Barry,"  cried  the 
frightened  officer,  "deputy  adjutant-general,  captain  in  the  Fifty-sec 
ond  regiment,"  etc.  "  That  will  do,"  said  Manning ;  "  you  are  just  the 
man  I  was  looking  for." 


230  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

the  end,  finding  Lafayette  reinforced,  made  his  way  to 
Yorktown,  near  the  mouth  of  York  River,  in  order  that  he 
might  obtain  aid  by  sea  from  New  York.  Here  he  threw 
up  fortifications. 

The  French  Fleet;  Washington's  March  South. — 
Hitherto  the  British  had  been  safe  at  the  sea-shore,  being 
under  protection  of  the  fleet.  The  French  fleet  as  yet  had 
been  of  little  service  to  the  Americans.  But  at  this  junc 
ture  a  large  French  fleet  arrived  from  the  West  Indies, 
under  Count  'de  Grasse. 

During  the  Southern  campaign  Washington  had  remained 
at  his  head-quarters  near  New  York,  diligently  watching 
Clinton.1  Now  a  splendid  opportunity  offered  itself  to  him. 
The  French  were  ready  to  sail  to  the  Chesapeake.  Corn- 
wallis  might  be  caught  in  a  trap.  Making,  therefore,  some 
skilful  movements,  as  if  he  proposed  to  attack  New  York, 
he  suddenly  broke  camp  and  marched  with  all  speed  south 
ward  to  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  whence  his  army 
was  transported  by  vessels  to  Yorktown. 

The  Siege  of  Yorktown. — This  movement  put  Corn- 
wallis  in  imminent  peril.  The  French  fleet  closed  the 
sea.  A  strong  American  and  French  army  closed  the  land. 
Yorktown  was  completely  surrounded.  For  a  week  the 
place  was  bombarded  by  the  army  and  the  fleet.  At  the 

1  The  winter  of  1780-81  proved  a  severe  one  for  Washington's  troops 
at  Morristown.  They  lacked  pay  and  clothing,  and  on  January  1  thir 
teen  hundred  of  the  Pennsylvania  line  broke  into  open  revolt  and 
marched  for  Philadelphia  to  demand  justice  from  Congress.  Wayne 
faced  them  with  loaded  pistols,  but  they  put  their  bayonets  to  his 
breast,  saying,  "We  love  and  respect  you,  but  if  you  fire  you  are  a 
dead  man."  A  committee  from  Congress  met  them  at  Princeton,  and, 
under  promise  of  speedy  payment,  induced  them  to  return.  British 
agents  met  them  also,  seeking  to  bribe  them  to  enter  the  royal  service 
These  they  seized  and  handed  over  as  spies. 


THE  WAR   IN  THE   SOUTH. 


231 


SIEGE  OF  YORKTOWN. 


end  of  that  time  Cornwallis,  finding  escape  impossible  and 

receiving  no  aid  from  Clinton,  surrendered  his  army  of  seven 

thousand  men.     On  October 

19,   1781,   the   captive   army 

marched  from  the  works  and 

Cornwallis    delivered    up  his 

sword.1 

"It  is  All  Over."— The 
struggle  for  independence  was 
over.  America  was  free. 
When  Lord  North,  the  Brit 
ish  prime  minister,  heard  the 
news,  he  cried,  wildly,  "  0 
God,  it  is  all  over!"  Soon 

after  he  resigned  his  office,  and  the  peace  party  came  into 
power. 

The  War  at  an  End. — The  capture  of  Yorktown  prac 
tically  ended  the  war.  Clinton,  learning  too  late  that  he  had 
been  overreached  by  Washington,  sent  a  force  of  seven 
thousand  men  by  sea  to  reinforce  Cornwallis.  They  reached 
Cape  Charles  five  days  after  the  surrender.  No  further 
conflicts  took  place.  In  March,  1782,  Parliament  resolved 
to  close  hostilities.  Savannah  was  evacuated  in  July  and 
Charleston  in  December.  New  York  was  held  for  nearly 
a  year  longer,  the  negotiations  for  peace  not  being  completed. 
The  treaty  of  peace,  which  was  negotiated  for  the  United 


1  The  tidings  of  the  surrender  filled  the  whole  land  with  joy.  Mid 
night  had  passed  when  the  gladsome  news  reached  Philadelphia,  but 
the  watchman's  stirring  cry,  "  Past  two  o'clock  and  Cornwallis  is  taken  !" 
soon  filled  the  streets  with  joyful  crowds.  So  intense  was  the  feeling 
of  delight  that  it  is  said  the  old  doorkeeper  of  Congress  died  of  joy. 
In  the  afternoon  Congress  marched  in  solemn  procession  to  the  Lutheran 
church  to  return  thanks  to  God  for  the  victory. 


232 


FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 


States  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Adams,  and  John  Jay, 
was  finally  signed  at  Paris,  September  3,  1783,  and  on 
November  25  the  British  sailed  away  from  New  York  and 
Washington  marched  in  amid  the  joyful  plaudits  of  the 


SURRENDER  OF  CORNWALLIS. 

people.  Soon  after  he  resigned  his  commission  and  reached 
home  at  Mount  Vernon  in  time  to  spend  there  a  joyful 
Christmas. 

Boundaries  of  the  Nation. — By  the  treaty  it  was  decided 
that  the  territory  of  the  new  nation  should  extend  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  the  Mississippi  River.  Great  Britain  re 
tained  Canada  and  gave  back  Florida  to  Spain.  The  vast 
region  west  of  the  Mississippi  was  held  by  Spain.  The 
United  States  had  no  Gulf  coast,  Florida  extending  by  a 
strip  of  land  fifty  miles  wide  to  join  Louisiana,  so  that  on 
all  the  south  and  west  lay  Spanish  territory. 


THE   BIRTH   OF  A  NATION.  233 

5.   THE    BIRTH    OF   A   NATION. 

Concentration  of  the  People. — At  the  opening  of  the 
Revolution  the  population  of  the  colonies  is  supposed  to 
have  been  more  than  two  million  five  hundred  thousand. 
And,  fortunately  for  the  Americans,  this  population  was 
concentrated  within  the  narrow  space  between  the  moun 
tains  and  the  sea.  Had  access  to  the  west  been  easy,  and 
the  population  been  thinly  spread  over  this  vast  territory, 
independence  could  not  have  been  gained  at  that  period.  As 
it  was,  the  mountains  had  proved 
an  almost  impassable  barrier.  It 
was  only  a  few  years  before  the 
Revolution  that  Daniel  Boone 
made  his  way  into  Kentucky,  and 
the  conquest  of  that  virgin  terri 
tory  began.  About  the  same  time 
the  settlement  of  Tennessee  com 
menced.  Some  settlers  had  made 
their  way  into  the  Ohio  region. 

_,    ,  i.     «        (1         T^         i    ,-  DANIEL  BOONE. 

But    practically   the    Revolution 

was  over  before  the  settlement  of  the  great  West  fairly  began. 
Condition  of  the  Country  after  the  War. — Though  the 
country  had  peace  after  the  surrender  at  Yorktown,  it  was 
otherwise  in  a  desperate  strait.  Its  commerce  was  destroyed, 
its  money  was  worthless,  its  trade  and  manufactures  were 
neglected.  Towns  and  villages  had  been  ruined  and  crops 
destroyed.  The  soldiers  earnestly  petitioned  Congress  for 
their  pay,  but  received  no  redress  ;  Congress  was  helpless  ; 
the  treasury  was  empty.1  Washington  was  invited  by  some 

1  During  the  war  Robert  Morris,  an  Englishman  by  birth,  but  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Continental  Congress  and  signer  of  the  Declaration,  worked 
as  effectively  in  one  way  for  American  independence  as  did  Washington 


234  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

ambitious  spirits  to  make  himself  king,  a  proposition  which 
he  indignantly  rejected.  Violent  measures  to  obtain  redress 
for  their  wrongs  were  proposed  by  some  officers,  but  Wash 
ington  quieted  them  by  wise  advice,  and  on  April  19, 1783, 
the  eighth  anniversary  of  Lexington,  the  soldiers  were  al 
lowed  to  go  home  on  furlough.  The  army  was  formally 
disbanded  in  November. 

Soldiers  in  Mutiny ;  Taxes  not  Paid. — During  the  fol 
lowing  June  a  band  of  drunken  soldiers  in  Philadelphia 
became  so  violent  in  their  demands  for  their  pay  that  Con 
gress  in  alarm  fled  from  the  city.  As  for  the  taxes,  they 
were  not  paid.  Of  those  assessed  on  the  States  in  1783 
only  one-fifth  had  been  paid  in  1785.  Congress  could  only 
ask  for  money.  It  could  not  enforce  its  payment.  » 

The  Articles  of  Confederation. — In  truth,  though  Con 
gress  had  named  the  new  nation  The  United  States  of  Amer 
ica,  its  union  was  a  very  feeble  one.  "  Articles  of  Confeder- 

and  Franklin  in  other  ways.  He  was  a  merchant  and  banker  of  Phil 
adelphia,  and  a  strong  friend  of  Washington.  Just  after  the  battle  of 
Trenton,  Washington  wrote  to  him  that  he  must  have  fifty  thousand 
dollars  in  hard  cash,  or  he  would  lose  a  large  number  of  men  whose 
terms  were  out.  Morris  went  around  among  his  friends  before  day 
break,  raised  the  sum  needed,  and  sent  it  to  Washington.  Without  his 
aid  in  later  years  the  war  could  not  have  been  carried  on.  Some  money 
had  been  borrowed  in  Europe,  but  Congress  depended  mainly  on  paper 
money,  which  by  the  summer  of  1780  had  become  almost  worthless. 
It  took  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  in  this  currency  to  buy  a  bushel 
of  corn,  and  two  thousand  dollars  for  a  suit  of  clothes.  During  the 
winter  of  1780-81,  Morris  sent  the  army  several  thousand  barrels  of 
flour,  and  issued  his  own  notes  for  one  million  four  hundred  thousand 
dollars  to  aid  the  army  in  its  final  campaigns.  Washington  could  nol 
have  made  his  march  to  Yorktown  without  the  assistance  of  this  earnest 
patriot.  It  is  greatly  to  the  discredit  of  the  United  States  that  this 
noble-hearted  citizen,  who  lost  his  fortune  in  his  old  age,  was  permitted 
to  be  sent  to  prison  for  debt. 


THE  BIRTH   OF  A  NATION.  235 

ation  and  Perpetual  Union"  had  been  adopted  in  1777,  and 
been  finally  ratified  by  the  agreement  of  all  the  States  in 
March,  1781.  But  the  Confederation  was  not  a  union. 
Each  State  claimed  to  be  a  sovereign  commonwealth,  and 
little  power  was  given  to  the  central  government. 

The  weak  point  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation  was  that 
they  gave  Congress  no  power  to  lay  taxes  or  to  demand  sol 
diers.  It  could  only  ask  the  States  for  men  and  money,  and 
wait  till  they  were  ready  to  give  them.  It  could  make 
treaties,  but  could  not  enforce  them  ;  could  borrow  money, 
but  could  not  repay  it ;  could  make  war,  but  could  not  en 
list  a  soldier.  In  short,  it  could  recommend,  but  had  to 
depend  upon  the  States  to  act. 

State  Jealousy. — The  States  proposed  to  remain  inde 
pendent.  They  were  jealous  of  each  other  and  of  Con 
gress.  There  was  a  heavy  war  debt,  but  they  failed  to  raise 
money  for  its  payment.  "  We  are,"  said  Washington,  "  one 
nation  to  day  and  thirteen  to-morrow."  That  clearly  ex 
pressed  it.  There  was  no  actual  union.  It  was  doubtful 
whe'ther  in  the  end  there  would  be  one  strong  nation  or 
thirteen  weak  ones. 

Shays's  Rebellion. — The  trouble  in  raising  money  was 
largely  due  to  the  poverty  of  the  people,  many  of  whom 
were  so  loaded  with  debt  as  to  be  unable  to  pay  taxes. 
This  was  particularly  the  case  in  Massachusetts,  whose 
farmers  had  been  made  poor  by  the  war,  and  many  of 
whom  were  now  hard  pressed  by  their  creditors.  In  the 
.end  they  became  desperate.  In  August,  1786,  nearly  two 
thousand  of  them  rose  in  rebellion,  led  by  Daniel  Shays, 
who  had  been  a  captain  in  the  war. 

They  surrounded  the  court-houses  and  put  a  stop  to  all 
actions  for  debt ;  then  they  went  on  to  burn  and  plunder, 
finally  attacking  the  arsenal  at  Springfield.  A  strong  force 


236  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

of  troops  was  at  length  called  out,  and  the  outbreak  sup 
pressed  in  February,  1787. 

The  Treaty  not  Carried  Out. — The  lack  of  true  union 
in  the  States  gave  rise  to  another  serious  trouble.  From 
time  to  time  laws  had  been  passed  confiscating  the  property 
of  Tories  and  hindering  British  merchants  from  collecting 
debts  in  America.  It  had  been  agreed  in  the  treaty  that 
these  laws  should  be  repealed,  but  the  States  failed  to  do 
so.  The  Tories  were  treated  so  badly  that  more  than  one 
hundred  thousand  of  them  left  the  country  between  1783 
and  1785,  and  Parliament  had  to  pay  many  of  them  for 
their  losses. 

The  British  government,  displeased  at  this  bad  faith,  re 
fused  to  deliver  several  military  posts  in  the  North,  holding 
on  to  them  till  1796.  It  also  passed  laws  which  injured 
American  commerce.  The  Americans  could  not  retaliate, 
for  no  two  States  had  the  same  commercial  policy.  Some 
of  the  States,  indeed,  began  to  interfere  with  freedom  of 
trade  with  each  other,  by  laying  high  tariffs  and  passing  laws 
restrictive  of  free  navigation. 

State  Quarrels. — There  were  also  quarrels  about  boun 
daries  and  territory,  and  between  New  England  and  the 
South  in  reference  to  a  commercial  treaty  with  Spain  and 
the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  It  began  to  look  very 
much  as  if  the  union  could  not  be  maintained,  and  as  if 
instead  of  one  strong  nation  there  would  be  thirteen  so 
weak  as  to  be  at  the  mercy  of  European  powers. 

Land  Claims. — There  was  one  thing  that  helped  to  keep 
the  States  together.  This  was  the  Northwestern  Territory, 
which  had  been  conquered  for  Virginia  by  George  Rogers 
Clark  in  1779  and  retained  in  the  treaty  of  peace.  Several 
States  claimed  this  territory.  Virginia  held  it  through  con 
quest,  but  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  whose  charters 


THE   BIRTH   OF  A   NATION.  237 

gave  them  claims  running  to  the  Pacific,  and  New  York, 
which  professed  to  be  the  heir  of  the  Iroquois,  demanded 
their  share  in  it.  The  Southern  States  also  had  claims 
extending  westward  to  the  Mississippi. 

The  Northwestern  Territory. — Maryland  did  a  good  ser 
vice  for  the  country  by  refusing  to  enter  the  confederation 
until  the  States  which  claimed  the  Northwestern  Territory 
should  yield  their  claims  to  the  United  States.  New  York 
was  the  first  to  agree  to  this,  and  assurance  wras  given  that 
the  other  States  would  do  the  same.  They  had  all  done  so 
by  1785.  Congress  had  now  the  control  of  a  great  region 
of  fertile  land  which  might  be  divided  up  and  sold  for  far 
more  than  enough  to  pay  the  public  debt.  The  Southern 
States  gradually  gave  up  their  claims  also,  Georgia  being 
the  last  to  do  so,  in  1802.  This  fixed  the  boundaries  of  the 
thirteen  original  States.  Connecticut  and  Virginia  for  a  time 
held  control  of  a  part  of  their  old  claims,  but  eventually  sold 
these  remaining  portions. 

Congress  Asks  for  Powers. — Congress,  feeling  its  weak 
ness,  asked  that  the  Articles  of  Confederation  should  be 
amended  so  as  to  give  it  the  power  to  lay  a  duty  on  imports. 
Most  of  the  States  agreed  to  this,  but  unanimous  consent 
was  required,  and  that  could  not  be  obtained.  This  failure 
made  many  patriots  despair.  Washington,  to  whom  inde 
pendence  was  due,  felt  hopeless  about  the  future. 

A  Convention  Proposed. — In  1785  a  meeting  was  held 
at  Mount  Vernon  to  consider  questions  of  jurisdiction  of 
Maryland  and  Virginia  over  their  intervening  waters.  The 
general  condition  of  affairs  was  discussed,  and  James  Madi 
son,  one  of  the  commissioners,  soon  after  induced  the 
Virginia  legislature  to  invite  a  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  States,  to  be  held  at  Annapolis  in  1786,  its  purpose 
being  to  take  steps  for  the  regulation  of  commerce. 


238  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED  STATES. 

Only  five  States  sent  delegates  to  this  convention,  twelve 
men  in  all.  Under  the  influence  of  Alexander  Hamilton 
another  convention  was  called,  to  meet  in  Philadelphia  in 
May,  1787.  This  had  a  broader  scope.  Its  purpose  was 
to  devise  measures  for  an  extension  of  the  powers  of  the 
Federal  government. 

The  Constitutional  Convention. — All  the  States  but 
Rhode  Island  responded  to  this  call,  and  on  the  25th  of 


INDEPENDENCE  HALL  AT  THE  TIME  OP  THE  REVOLUTION. 

May,  1787,  there  met  in  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia, 
the  most  momentous  assembly  ever  known  in  the  history 
of  our  country.  It  embraced  the  ablest  men  in  the  land, 
and  some  of  the  ablest  statesmen  any  land  has  ever  pro 
duced.  Washington  was  chosen  its  president.  Among  its 
members  were  Franklin,  Hamilton,  Madison,  Robert  Morris, 
Gouverneur  Morris,  and  others  of  high  reputation. 

Just  what  this  convention  was  to  do  was  not  clearly  de 
fined.  Many  held  that  it  had  power  only  to  revise  the 
Articles  of  Confederation.  Hamilton  and  Madison  declared 
that  any  revision  would  be  useless,  and  that  a  new  system 


THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NATION.  f     239 

must  be  devised.  This  opinion  was  accepted,  and  the  con 
vention  began  its  work. 

Behind  Closed  Doors. — The  convention  performed  its 
labors  in  secret.  Its  debates  were  held  behind  closed  doors. 
For  four  months  it  continued  at  work.  State  j  ealo  usies  were 
strong,  local  demands  were  ardently  pressed,  and  more  than 
once  it  seemed  as  if  the  body  must  give  up  the  task  in 
despair. 

Compromises. — From  end  to  end  the  Constitution  de 
cided  upon  was  a  series  of  compromises  between  conflicting 
interests. 

1.  The  small  States  were  afraid  of  being  overpowered 
by  the  larger  ones.    This  difficulty  was  overcome  by  giving 
them  equal  representation  in  the  Senate. 

2.  In  the  Continental  Congress  the  people  had  not  been 
represented,  only  the  States.     The  rights  of  the  people  were 
now  provided  for  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

3.  The  slavery  question  was  settled  by  counting  every 
five  slaves  as  equal  to  three  white  men  in  fixing  the  basis 
of  representation. 

4.  The  Continental  Congress  had  no  executive  head  to 
carry  out  its  decrees.     One  was  now  provided  in  the  Presi 
dent. 

5.  In  the  Supreme  Court  a  balance-wheel  was  provided, 
by  whose  aid  the  Constitution  could  always  run  true.     Any 
law  which  this  court  decided  to  be  not  in  accordance  with 
the  Constitution  became  of  no  effect. 

The  Action  of  the  States. — The  document  thus  prepared 
was  a  remarkable  one.  For  more  than  a  century  it  has 
now  served  as  the  Constitution  of  a  great  and  growing  coun 
try  without  showing  any  serious  defects.  It  was  signed 
September  17,  1787,  and  sent  to  Congress  for  transmission 
to  the  States,  where  it  gave  rise  to  serious  and  sometimes 


240  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED  STATES. 

bitter  debates.  Many  feared  that  it  would  lead  to  tyranny. 
Such  ardent  patriots  as  Samuel  Adams,  Patrick  Henry,  and 
George  Clinton  vigorously  opposed  it.  A  strong  party  arose 
against  it.  The  Federalist  party  earnestly  advocated  it,  be 
lieving  that  a  strong  central  government  was  necessary  if  the 
Union  was  to  be  preserved. 

The  Constitution  Ratified. — One  by  one  the  States 
adopted  it.  By  June  21,  1788,  it  had  been  ratified  by  nine 
States,  the  number  fixed  upon  to  make  it  the  law  of  the 
land.  Rhode  Island,  the  last  State  to  ratify  the  Constitu 
tion,  did  not  do  so  till  May  29,  1790.  Its  adoption  was 
celebrated  by  joyful  processions,  in  which  the  Union  was 
indicated  by  the  "  Ship  of  State,"  and  other  significant  em 
blems  were  shown.  With  its  adoption  the  second  Conti 
nental  Congress,  which  had  served  as  the  governing  body 
of  the  country  for  thirteen  years,  ceased  to  exist. 

The  New  Government. — The  old  government  had  been 
weak ;  the  new  one  was  strong.  Each  State  had  still  the 
power  to  make  laws  for  its  own  internal  affairs,  but  all 
powers  of  external  government  were  given  to  Congress  and 
the  President.  They  had  the  power  to  form  an  army  and 
navy,  to  make  and  enforce  treaties,  to  declare  war  and  con 
clude  peace.  They  could  coin  money,  lay  taxes,  regulate 
commerce,  and  make  laws  for  the  nation.  No  State  was 
permitted  to  enact  laws  which  would  infringe  the  rights  of 
other  States  or  of  the  United  States. 

The  new  government  consisted  of  three  bodies :  one  to 
make  the  laws,  one  to  execute  them,  and  one  to  decide  if 
they  agreed  with  the  Constitution. 

Congress,  the  law-making  body,  consisted  of  the  Senate, 
elected  by  the  State  legislatures  and  representing  the  States, 
and  the  House  of  Representatives,  elected  by  and  repre 
senting  the  people. 


THE  CONDITION   OF  THE   COUNTRY.  241 

The  executive  branch  consisted  of  a  President  and  Vice- 
President,  with  officials  as  heads  of  departments. 

The  President  had  the  power  to  veto  or  annul  any  act  of 
Congress  of  which  he  did  not  approve,  but  it  could  be  passed 
over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses.  It  then 
became  his  duty  to  execute  it  or  carry  out  its  provisions. 

The  third  body  of  the  government,  the  Supreme  Court, 
consisted  of  a  number  of  eminent  judges,  whose  duty  was 
to  examine  all  laws  whose  validity  was  called  in  question, 
and  decide  whether  or  not  they  agreed  with  the  Constitution. 
If  not,  they  ceased  to  be  laws.  Every  law,  either  of  Congress 
or  of  the  States,  must  be  in  accordance  writh  the  require 
ments  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

6.   THE    CONDITION    OF   THE   COUNTRY. 

Population. — The  political  history  of  the  United  States 
is  but  part  of  its  full  history.  It  is  proposed  here  to  say 
something  about  its  social  and  economical  history  at  the 
period  which  our  record  has  now  reached.  At  the  begin 
ning  of  the  Revolution  there  were  probably  more  than  two 
and  a  half  millions  of  people  in  the  country.  By  1790  these 
had  increased  to  nearly  four  millions.1  Virginia,  Pennsyl 
vania,  North  Carolina,  and  Massachusetts  were  the  most 
populous  States,  while  the  leading  cities  were  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  and  Boston. 

This  population  was  largely  confined  to  the  coast  region, 
the  interior  being  very  thinly  settled.  Most  of  it  was  still  a 
forest- covered  wilderness.  The  towns  were  small  and  far 

1  The  first  census  of  the  United  States  was  taken  in  1790.  The  pop 
ulation  was  found  to  be  three  million  nine  hundred  and  twenty-nine 
thousand  two  hundred  and  fourteen.  Of  these  nearly  seven  hundred 
thousand  were  slaves. 

16 


KIIOM 


S    TO    I'MTMI)    STATUS. 


apart.  They  were  more  numerous  in  New  Kn^land  Iliau 
in  Hie  Middle  Slates,  and  in  Ihe  Soulliern  Slales  there 
were  lew  beyond  the  sixe  of  villages.  Kxeeplin^  Balti 
more,  Charleston,  Savannah,  and  some  oilier  coasl  lowns, 
the  South  was  almost  wholly  a  country  of  farms  and  plan 
tations. 

Settlement  of  the  West. — The4  settlement  of  Ihe  ^reat 
West  was  making  irood  progress.  Daniel  Hoone  and  his 
fellow-pioneers  had  fairly  conquered  Kentucky,  and  ils  set- 
llemenls  were  ^  rowing.  Tennessee  was  also  bein^  rapidly 

occupied  by  immigrants. 
These  I  \\ o  territories  had 
in  17JH)  ahonl  one  hun 
dred  thousand  people. 
Others  were  making  their 
way  into  Ihe  Norlhwesl- 
(>ni  't'erHtory,  many  of 
them  lloalin^  in  lar^e 

Hal  hoals  down  lti(»  Ohio  and  li^htin^  wilh  llu4  Indians  as 
they  went.  The  foundations  of  later  cities  were  heinj?  laid. 
Colonel  Clark  slarled  Louisville  in  177S,  during  his  expedi 
tion  against  Kaskaskia.  Cincinnati  was  founded  in  17SS. 
Tlit*  same  year  no  less  than  len  thousand  emigrants  went 
to  Marietta  and  ils  vicinity.  These  pioneers  lived  in  Ihe 
mosl  primitive  manner,  building  ron^h  lo^  houses,  ^riudiiij? 
Iheir  corn  helweiMi  two  stones,  and  obtaining  ni(%al  by  aid 
of  the  rille.  Everywhere  tln\v  worked  wilh  their  gUUS close 
at  hand.  The  West  once  invaded,  il  was  rapidly  settled,  a 
lever  of  migration  lo  Ihese  new  and  rich  lands  bein^  S(>l 
up. 

The  Emigrants  of  the  North. — The  adventurous  spirits 
of  the  Northern  States  did  not  lind  a  navigable  river  lo  aid 
them  in  their  westward  progress.  lUit  the  Iroqnois  Indians. 


T1IF,   CONDITION   OF  T1IK   COUNTRY.  L>  (;* 

who  had  long  stood  in  their  w;iy,  had  been  largely  annihi 
lated  by  Sullivan's  expedition,  and  no  longer  presented  a. 
serious  obstacle.  The  pioneers  of  New  York  and  Now  Eng 
land  pushed  slowly  wesl  with  emigrant  wagons,  making- 
roads  as  they  wonl.  They  would  clear  ofT  the  trees  and 
eultivalo  Ihe  land  for  a  year  or  two,  and  then,  as  Ihe  sellle- 
nient  began  to  thicken,  would  set  out  fora  new  home  in  I  lie 
wilderness,  leaving  their  clearings  for  those  who  followed. 
It  was  like  a  great  army  slowly  marching  forward,  sending 
ils  scouts  in  advance,  and  pushing  back  Ihe  Indians  as  it 
went.  Before  its  front  Ihe  forest  fell.  By  its  main  body 
the  wilderness  was  converted  into  a  land  of  farms.  In  its 
rear  towns  and  cities  sprang  up. 

The  Products  of  the  Land. — Most  of  Ihe  peopl 
en-a-rd  in  aiiriciillmv.  Tin-  soil  was  rich  and  gave 
crops;  and  comfortable  farm-houses,  with  large,  well-filled 
barns,  wore  widely  to  be  seen,  while  great  Hocks  of  cattle 
and  sheep  grazed  in  Ihe  fields.  On  I  ho  small  Now  England 
farms  sheep  and  corn  wore  Ihe  leading  food  products.  The 
Middle  Slates  wore  famous  for  wheat.  In  Hie  South  groai 
plantations  replaced  the  small  farms  of  the  North,  and  largo 
crops  of  tobacco,  rice,  sugar,  etc.,  were  produced.  Cotton 
had  not  yet  become  a  loading  product,  but  did  so  in  a  low 
years  afterward,  when  Ihe  col  ton-gin  was  invented.  North 
Carolina  yielded  much  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine.  In  addi 
tion  the  forests  yielded  a  supply  of  lumber  that  seemed 
inexhaustible. 

Manufactures. — Farmers  in  I  hose  days  had  none  of  I  ho 
excellent  machines  which  are  in  use  to-day,  and  had  I  o  work 
very  hard  in  their  fields.  Their  work  at  home  was  as  hard, 
for  they  had  to  make1  for  themselves  nearly  everything  they 
needed.  While  they  were  tilling  I  ho  ground  I  heir  wives 
and  daughters  wore  spinning  and  weaving  in  Ihe  house. 


244  FROM   COLONIES  TO   UNITED   STATES. 

In  the  winter  the  men  were  kept  busy  making  their  own 
tools  and  articles  of  furniture,  even  hammering  out  the 
nails  they  needed  and  rude  iron  plates  for  ploughshares. 

Commerce. — New  England  was  largely  engaged  in  com 
merce  and  the  fisheries.  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadel 
phia  were  busy  centres  of  trade.  This 
commerce  grew  more  active  after  the 
war,  and  the  wealth  of  the  country 
soon  increased.  Tobacco  and  other 
products  brought  high  prices,  the  ships 
were  kept  busy,  and  people  began  to 
dress  better,  buy  superior  furniture, 
and  live  in  more  comfort  than  of  old. 
But  the  merchants  and  shippers  of 
America  found  the  competition  of  Eng- 

SPINNING- WHEEL.  ,  .,      „ 

land  very  severe,  while  the  few  manu 
factures  that  had  been  started  during  the  war  could  scarcely 
keep  at  work  in  competition  with  the  cheap  products  of 
British  workshops.  Instead  of  soldiers,  England  now  sent 
goods,  and  they  proved  as  hard  to  fight  against  by  the  small 
American  manufacturing  industries. 

Fuel. — At  this  period  wood  was  the  principal  fuel  of  the 
country,  though  soft  coal  was  burned  to  some  extent  near 
the  mines.  The  anthracite  or  hard  coal  of  Pennsylvania  had 
been  known  since  1766,  but  it  was  long  before  people 
learned  how  to  burn  it  in  their  houses,  and  it  did  not  come 
into  general  use  until  after  1830. 

Character  of  the  Cities. — There  were  some  handsome 
houses  in  the  cities,  but  the  mass  of  the  dwellings  were  not 
what  would  to-day  be  called  comfortable.  In  New  York 
trees  were  planted  before  the  houses,  and  there  were  rail 
ings  on  the  roofs  so  that  people  could  sit  there  on  warm 
summer  evenings.  Broadway  was  lighted  at  night  by  oil- 


THE   CONDITION   OF  THE  COUNTRY.  245 

lamps,  and  was  thought  a  splendid  avenue,  but  it  soon  ran 
into  the  open  country.  Philadelphia  was  the  handsomest 
and  most  important  city,  its  broad,  straight  streets  contrast 
ing  favorably  with  the  narrow  and  crooked  thoroughfares 
of  Boston  and  New  York.1 

Little  Wealth  or  Poverty. — There  were  no  men  of 
great  riches.  Very  few  in  the  country  had  an  income  of 
ten  thousand  dollars  a  year.  There  was  little  poverty  and 
little  riches,  most  of  the  people  being  nearly  equal  in 
wealth.  They  were  simple  in  their  manners,  and  did  not, 
as  a  rule,  live  expensively. 

Customs  of  the  Rich. — But  the  rich  people  in  the  cities 
lived  much  better  than  the  farmers  and  made  much  more 
display.  They  dressed,  indeed,  far  more  showily  than  the 
same  class  do  to-day.  The  gentlemen  wore  white  satin 
vests  and  white  silk  stockings,  with  velvet  or  broadcloth 
coats.  The  ladies  wore  rich  silks  and  satins,  and  had  their 
hair  dressed  with  powder  and  pomatum  and  raised  like  a 
tower  above  their  heads.  Snuff-taking  was  common  among 
gentlemen,  and  to  offer  the  snuff-box  was  an  ordinary  act 
of  politeness. 

Social  Entertainments. — Fine  balls  were  given  at  which 
there  was  much  formality.  There  were  also  musical  con 
certs  ;  but  the  theatre  had  as  yet  made  little  progress,  it 
being  considered  immoral.  At  President  Washington's  re 
ceptions  the  pomp  and  show  rivalled  that  of  the  courts  of 

1  In  1790  Philadelphia  had  about  forty-two  thousand  population, 
New  York  thirty-three  thousand,  and  Boston  eighteen  thousand. 
Charleston  and  Baltimore  were  the  largest  Southern  cities,  Savannah 
being  still  quite  small.  These  cities  resembled  country  towns.  Bos 
ton,  for  instance,  had  unpaved  streets  and  no  flagged  sidewalks.  The 
better  houses  were  of  brick,  with  little  flower-gardens  or  lawns  adorned 
with  shrubbery  in  front. 


246  FROM   COLONIES  TO  UNITED  STATES. 

Europe.  This  ceased  when  Jefferson  became  President. 
He  dressed  plainly  and  did  away  with  all  ceremony. 

In  the  Houses. — In  the  houses  there  were  still  broad 
open  fireplaces  where  great  logs  of  wood  were  burned,  and 
whose  heat  nearly  all  made  its  way  up  the  chimney.  The 
Franklin  stove,  a  sort  of  iron  hearth,  was  in  use  in  many 
houses,  and  was  a  considerable  improvement.  The  closed 
wood  stove  did  not  come  into  use  until  later  days.  Tallow 
candles  were  employed  to  light  the  rooms,  while  homespun 
was  still  much  worn. 

Amusements. — Amusements  were  few  and  simple,  and 
books  and  newspapers  scarce.  In  truth,  there  was  little 
time  for  reading  or  amusement,  the  hours  occupied  in 
labor  being  much  longer  than  now  and  the  work  done 
more  exhausting  in  character.  In  those  days  men  did  not 
attend  machines,  but  did  everything  with  their  own  hands. 
There  were  some  labor-saving  devices,  and  the  steam- 
engine  had  been  invented,  but  the  era  of  machine  produc 
tion  had  only  fairly  begun.1 


1  The  cotton-gin,  used  to  clean  the  cotton  fibre  of  its  seeds,  was 
invented  by  Eli  Whitney,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1793.  It  proved  of 
immense  advantage  to  the  production  of  cotton  in  the  South.  No 
other  invention  has  had  so  great  an  influence  on  the  history  of  this 
country.  Oliver  Evans,  of  Delaware,  invented  the  grain  elevator  and 
the  steam  dredge.  Jacob  Perkins,  of  Massachusetts,  invented  the  first 
practical  nail-machine.  In  1790,  John  Fitch,  of  Connecticut,  built  and 
ran  a  steamboat  on  the  Delaware  River.  It  failed,  however,  to  attract 
public  attention,  and  it  was  not  till  1807  that  a  satisfactory  steamboat, 
the  Clermont,  was  produced  by  Robert  Fulton,  a  native  of  Pennsyl 
vania. 


PART  VI. 
THE  EARLY  PERIOD  OF  THE  REPUBLIC 


I.  IKHasfoinoton's  Hfcmintstration. 

What  the  Constitution  Did. — The  Constitution  of  1787 
made  the  United  States  of  America.  The  country  had  been 
given  that  name  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and 
the  Articles  of  Confederation ;  but,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
States  were  far  from  being  united  ;  so  weak  was  their  bond 
of  connection  that  it  was  in  danger  of  breaking  and  leaving 
them  as  thirteen  disunited  States.  The  Constitution  first 
made  this  country  a  nation,  a  federal  republic  of  a  strength 
and  soundness  of  union  surpassing  that  of  any  previous 
government  of  the  people.  The  history  of  this  country  as 
a  single  and  well-defined  community  begins,  therefore, 
with  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  by  the  States,  and  the 
yielding  to  the  central  government  of  such  of  their  indi 
vidual  powers  as  were  needed  to  make  a  strong  and  enduring 
nation. 

First  Presidential  Election. — When  the  question  arose 
as  to  who  should  be  the  first  President  of  the  United  States 
under  the  new  Constitution,  both  parties,  Federalists  and 
Anti-Federalists  alike,  fixed  upon  George  Washington  as 
the  man  to  whom  the  liberties  of  the  country  were  due  and 
who  was  most  worthy  of  the  honor.  Presidential  elections 
were  held  in  ten  of  the  States,  but  there  was  no  opposition 

247 


248  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

to  Washington,  who  was  chosen  unanimously.  John  Adams 
was  elected  Vice-President.1 

The  Inauguration. — As  soon  as  Washington  received 
news  of  his  election  he  set  out  from  his  quiet  home  at 
Mount  Vernon,  which  he  left  with 
much  regret,  for  New  York,  then  the 
seat  of  Congress.  His  journey  was 
like  a  triumphal  procession.  Along 
the  whole  way  the  people  crowded 
to  the  roadside,  waiting  for  hours  to 
see  him  pass.  "  Guns  were  fired,  tri 
umphal  arches  were  erected,  and 
flowers  were  strewn  in  the  roads 
over  which  his  carriage  was  to  pass." 
GEORGE  WASHINGTON.  The  new  nation  began  its  life  on 

March  4,  1789,2  on  which   day  the 

Constitution  went  into  operation,  but  the  new  Congress  had 
not  assembled  at  that  date,  and  the  inauguration  of  Wash 
ington  did  not  take  place  till  April  30.  He  took  the  oath 
of  office  on  the  balcony  of  a  building  in  front  of  Federal 
Hall  (in  which  Congress  met),  in  the  presence  of  a  great 
and  enthusiastic  multitude.  When  he  had  finished,  the 
ringing  of  bells  and  firing  of  cannon  testified  to  the  public 


1  At  that  time  the  electors  voted  for  two  persons,  the  one  receiving 
the  highest  number  of  votes  being  declared  President,  the  next  highest 
Vice-President.     Washington  received  sixty-nine  votes,  Adams  thirty- 
four. 

2  Congress  had  appointed  the  first  Wednesday  in  January,  1789,  as 
the  day  to  choose  Presidential  electors,  the  first  Wednesday  in  Febru 
ary  as  the  day  on  which  these  electors  should  meet  to  choose  a  Presi 
dent,  and  the  first  Wednesday  in  March  as  the  day  on  which  the 
President  should  take  his  seat.     This  happened  to  be  the  4th  of  March 
in  that  year,  and  the  4th  has  been  inauguration  day  ever  since. 


WASHINGTON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  249 

joy,  and  a  ringing  shout  went  up  of,  "  Long  live  George 
Washington,  President  of  the  United  States  !" 

Organization  of  the  Government. — Washington  ap 
pointed  Thomas  Jefferson  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs 
(now  called  Secretary  of  State),  Alexander  Hamilton  Sec 
retary  of  the  Treasury,  Henry  Knox  Secretary  of  War,  and 
Edmund  Randolph  Attorney-General.  These,  with  later 
Secretaries,  became  afterward  the  President's  advisers, 
acquiring  the  title  of  the  Cabinet.  John  Jay  was  appointed 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  associate  judges 
were  chosen.  Among  the  first  acts  of  the  new  Congress 
was  one  selecting  Philadelphia  as  the  national  capital  for 
the  ten  years  1790-1800.  At  the  latter  date  the  capital 
was  to  be  removed  to  a  new  city,  to  be  built  on  the  Poto 
mac  and  named  Washington  in  honor  of  the  President.1 

The  Constitution  Amended. — It  quickly  appeared  that 
the  Constitution  had  failed  to  cover  the  whole  field  of 
public  questions,  and  the  First  Congress  found  it  necessary 
to  add  a  number  of  amendments.  Twelve  of  these  were 
proposed  in  1791,  most  of  them  intended  to  guard  the 
rights  of  the  people  and  of  the  States.  Ten  of  these  were 
adopted.  Two  others  were  subsequently  adopted,  one  in 
1798  and  one  in  1804.  No  further  amendments  were 
required  until  after  the  Civil  War. 

New  States. — During  Washington's  administration  the 
first  admissions  of  new  States  to  the  Union  were  made,  Ver- 

1  The  site  of  the  Federal  capital  was  not  selected  without  dispute. 
The  Northern  members  of  Congress  wanted  it  as  far  north  as  the  Dela 
ware  River.  The  Southern  members  wished  to  have  it  as  far  south  as 
the  Potomac.  The  debate  was  sharp  and  protracted.  It  was  settled 
at  length  by  a  compromise.  The  South  got  the  capital,  and  the  North 
obtained  an  agreement  that  Congress  should  assume  and  pay  all  the 
State  debts. 


250  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF   THE   REPURLIC. 

mont  being  admitted  in  1791,  Kentucky  in  1792,  and  Ten 
nessee  in  1796.  Vermont  had  been  originally  claimed  by 
both  New  York  and  New  Hampshire,  whose  claims  were 
vigorously  disputed  by  the  "  Green  Mountain  Boys."  At 
times  it  looked  as  if  they  would  go  to  war  with  New  York. 
That  State  gave  up  its  claim  in  1789.1 

Captain  Gray's  Discovery. — In  the  first  year  of  Washing 
ton's  administration,  Captain  Gray,  in  a  Boston  ship,  the 
Columbia,  started  out  with  a  cargo  of  Yankee  notions,  and 
made  a  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  carrying  the  Amer 
ican  flag  for  the  first  time  around  the  world.  He  returned 
to  Boston  in  1790,  and  in  the  following  year  sailed  again  to 
the  Pacific.  Here  he  discovered  in  the  Oregon  region  a 
great  river,  which  he  named  the  Columbia  from  his  ship. 
He  sailed  up  it  for  twenty  miles,  and  left  an  indication  of 
his  visit  by  burying  some  pine-tree  shillings  at  the  foot  of 
a  tree. 

Difficulties  of  the  Government. — It  was  by  no  easy  path 
that  the  new  government  was  to  make  its  way.  Difficulties 
and  discouragements  confronted  it.  England  was  unfriendly ; 
Spain  was  hostile,  closing  the  Mississippi  against  American 
commerce.  Algerine  pirates  were  capturing  American  mer 
chant  vessels  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Indians  of  the 
Northwest  were  in  arms  against  the  pioneer  settlers.  A 


1  The  territory  of  Vermont  was  once  known  as  the  "  New  Hampshire 
Grants,"  grants  of  land  there  having  been  made  by  the  governor  of  New 
Hampshire.  Ethan  Allen  was  one  of  the  principal  leaders  in  the  war 
like  opposition  to  New  York.  Kentucky  was  at  first  a  county  of  Vir 
ginia,  but  was  finally  given  up  by  that  State.  Tennessee  was  similarly 
a  part  of  North  Carolina,  then  a  separate  State  named  Franklin,  again 
a  part  of  North  Carolina,  and  finally  was  ceded  to  the  general  govern 
ment.  It  was  afterward  united  with  Kentucky  as  a  Territory,  and  after 
the  admission  of  Kentucky  remained  a  separate  Territory  till  1796. 


WASHINGTON'S  ADMINISTRATION. 


251 


more  immediate  trouble  to  contend  with  was  the  condition 
of  the  finances.  The  treasury  was  empty,  no  method  of 
obtaining  a  revenue  had  been  devised,  and  the  country  had 
no  credit.  The  Continental  currency  had  disappeared  from 
circulation. 

Hamilton's  Methods  of  Finance. — In  this  dilemma,  Alex 
ander  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  came  to  the 
rescue.  Congress,  at  his  suggestion,  assumed  the  debts  of 
the  States.  It  must  have  means  to  pay  them.  To  do  so 
some  plan  of  taxation  must  be  de 
vised.  A  direct  tax  is  always  an  un 
popular  one,  and  sometimes  its  col 
lection  is  resisted,  so  that  financiers 
have  usually  preferred  the  system  of 
indirect  taxation,  in  which  the  people 
pay  without  directly  perceiving  it. 
Hamilton,  therefore,  had  a  moderate 
tariff  placed  on  imported  goods. 

Our  commerce  then  was  large,  and 
a  very  low  tariff  soon  yielded  suffi 
cient  funds  for  the  government  needs, 
had  another  purpose  in  view.  He  hoped  to  encourage 
American  manufactures  by  raising  the  price  of  foreign 
goods.1  In  addition  to  this  a  United  States  Bank  was 


ALEXANDER    HAMILTON. 


But  the  Secretary 


1  These  plans,  devised  by  Hamilton,  gave  rise  to  Daniel  Webster's 
eloquent  tribute  :  "  He  smote  the  rock  of  the  national  resources,  and 
abundant  streams  of  revenue  burst  forth.  He  touched  the  dead  corpse 
of  public  credit,  and  it  sprung  upon  its  feet."  This  eulogy  was  fully 
deserved.  By  aid  of  the  funds  produced  the  government  was  enabled 
to  pay  its  foreign  debt  and  to  redeem  the  discredited  Continental  cur 
rency  at  par,  while  meeting  its  running  expenses.  As  a  consequence, 
the  credit  of  the  United  States  was  fully  restored. 


252  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

founded  in  1791,1  and  in  1792  a  mint  for  the  coinage  of 
American  money  was  established. 

The  "Whiskey  "War. — The  shrewd  Secretary  thought, 
however,  that  there  was  one  product  on  which  a  direct  tax 
might  be  laid.  This  product  was  whiskey,  one  of  the  few 
products  which  to-day  pay  a  direct  tax.  But  he  soon 
found  that  the  people  were  unwilling  to  pay  taxes  that 
passed  directly  from  their  pockets  into  the  hands  of  the 
government.  In  the  region  of  the  Alleghany  River,  in 
Western  Pennsylvania,  an  active  business  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  whiskey  had  sprung  up,  and  the  distillers  and  people 
there  bitterly  resented  the  visits  of  the  tax  collector.  They 
broke  out  in  1794  into  open  insurrection,  maltreated  the 
government  officials,  and  showed  such  a  violent  determina 
tion  that  an  army  of  fifteen  thousand  troops  was  called  out 
to  subdue  them,  under  the  command  of  General  Henry 
Lee.  This  show  of  force  settled  the  question,  and  the  rebels 
consented  to  pay  their  taxes  without  a  fight.  This  was  the 
first  employment  of  government  troops  in  quelling  internal 
disturbances. 

The  Indian  War.— The  rapid  settlement  of  the  North 
western  Territory  was  not  amicably  viewed  by  the  Indians, 
the  original  owners  of  the  country.  Their  hostile  disposi 
tion  was  believed  to  be  encouraged  by  British  agents  and 
traders  from  the  military  posts  still  held  by  the  British  in 
the  lake  region.  In  1790,  General  Harmar  was  sent  into  the 


1  The  first  bank  in  America  had  been  founded  in  1781,  at  Philadel 
phia,  under  the  name  of  the  Bank  of  North  America,  by  Robert  Morris, 
then  financial  agent  of  the  government.  This  bank  is  still  in  existence. 
The  Bank  of  New  York  and  the  Bank  of  Massachusetts  were  afterward 
established.  In  1791  the  whole  banking  capital  of  the  country  was  two 
million  dollars.  The  Bank  of  the  United  States  began  operations  in 
1794  with  a  capital  of  ten  million  dollars. 


WASHINGTON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  253 

Indian  country  to  punish  the  savages  for  their  hostile  acts, 
but  was  defeated  by  them  in  two  battles.  In  the  follow 
ing  year  General  St.  Clair  suffered  a  surprise  and  a  severe 
defeat.  The  government  now  felt  it  necessary  to  take  de 
cisive  action,  if  it  wished  to  retain  that  country.  General 
Wayne,  the  hero  of  Stony  Point,  was  sent  there  with  a 
strong  force,  and  a  desperate  battle  was  fought  in  1794  on 
the  Maumee,  in  which  the  savages  were  utterly  routed. 
Wayne  laid  waste  their  country  for  fifty  miles,  and  forced 
upon  them  a  treaty  in  which  they  gave  up  a  large  tract  of 
land. 

Washing-ton's  Second  Term. — In  the  autumn  of  1792 
the  second  election  for  President  took  place.  There  were 
now  two  well-defined  political  parties,  the  Federal,  headed 
by  Hamilton,  and  the  Republican  (later  the  Democratic- 
Republican),  headed  by  Jefferson,  and  opposing  the  policy 
of  the  administration.  Despite  this  opposition  Washington 
and  Adams  were  re-elected  by  large  majorities. 

Foreign  Affairs. — Meanwhile,  Europe  was  in  a  ferment, 
and  the  troubles  abroad  made  themselves  felt  beyond  the 
ocean.  The  beginning  of  the  new  government  of  the  United 
States  was  nearly  contemporary  with  that  of  a  new  govern 
ment  in  France,  by  which  the  monarchy  was  overthrown 
and  a  republic  established.  War  in  consequence  had  arisen 
and  spread  throughout  Europe.  It  was  partly  fought  by 
England  and  France  upon  the  seas,  and  the  commerce  of 
America  began  to  suffer. 

A  Meddlesome  French  Minister. — In  1793  the  new  gov 
ernment  of  France  sent  a  man  named  Genet  as  its  minister 
to  this  country.  Finding  here  a  party  that  strongly  sym 
pathized  with  the  French  republicans,  he  was  insolent 
enough  to  defy  the  government,  trying  to  arouse  the  people 
against  it.  He  attempted  also  to  have  privateers  fitted  out 


254  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

in  American  ports,  hoping  thus  to  cause  war  between  Eng 
land  and  the  United  States.  Washington  sternly  repressed 
this  too  ardent  envoy,  who  acted  as  if  he  owned  the  country, 
and  the  French  government  thought  it  wise  to  recall  him. 

The  Algerine  Pirates. — For  several  years  the  piratical 
state  of  Algiers,  which  had  long  held  the  mercantile  nations 
of  Europe  under  tribute,  had  been  molesting  American 
commerce,  which  had  now  found  its  way  into  the  Mediter 
ranean.  Between  1785  and  1793  fifteen  vessels  were  cap 
tured  and  their  officers  and  crews  made  slaves.  In  1795  a 
treaty  was  concluded  with  Algiers  in  which  the  United  States 
agreed  to  ransom  the  captives  then  alive  and  to  pay  an 
annual  tribute  to  the  Dey,  the  ruler  of  that  country.  In 
this  it  was  but  doing  what  the  nations  of  Europe  had  long 
done. 

Trouble  with  England. — Difficulties  with  England  had 
also  arisen.  In  the  treaty  of  1783  the  question  of  remuner 
ating  Tories  for  their  confiscated  property  and  of  paying 
old  debts  to  British  merchants  was  discussed.  Congress 
said  that  it  could  not  compel,  but  would  recommend  the 
States  to  pay  these  debts.  They  were  not  paid,  and  harsh 
treatment  forced  thousands  of  Tories  to  leave  the  country. 
England  considered  this  bad  faith,  and  in  return  refused  to 
deliver  up  Detroit  and  other  posts  on  the  lakes. 

A  more  annoying  difficulty  soon  arose.  British  men-of- 
war  began  to  seize  American  merchant  ships  dealing  with 
French  ports.  They  went  still  further,  carrying  off  sea 
men  from  American  vessels  on  the  pretence  that  they  were 
British  subjects. 

John  Jay's  Treaty. — To  put  an  end  to  these  sources  of 
ill  feeling,  Chief  Justice  John  Jay  was  sent  to  England  to 
negotiate  a  treaty  between  the  two  nations.  He  succeeded 
in  obtaining  one  (called  the  treaty  of  1795)  which  settled  all 


WASHINGTON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  255 

the  questions  in  dispute  except  that  of  the  right  of  "  search 
and  impressment."  When  its  terms  became  known  great 
excitement  prevailed.  Jay  was  burned  in  effigy,  the  British 
minister  was  insulted,  and  Hamilton  was  stoned  at  a  public 
meeting.  But  Washington  favored  the  adoption  of  the 
treaty,  and  his  influence  carried  it  through  Congress  in  spite 
of  the  violent  opposition  there  shown.  The  treaty  was  far 
from  satisfactory,  but  it  averted  a  possible  war. 

A  Treaty  with  Spain. — A  treaty  was  also  made  with 
Spain,  which  fixed  the  boundaries  of  Florida  and  secured 
to  Americans  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
a  measure  of  great  importance  to  the  West.  New  Orleans 
was  to  be  made  a  port  of  deposit  for  the  Western  States. 


MOUNT  VEKNON. 

Washington's  Retirement. — As  the  end  of  Washington's 
second  term  drew  near  he  was  strongly  solicited  to  stand 
for  a  third  term.  He  persistently  refused,  and  John  Adams 
was  elected  to  succeed  him,  with  Jefferson  for  Vice-President. 
Washington  now  retired  from  public  life,  after  having  de 
voted  himself  for  many  years  to  the  service  of  his  country. 


256 


THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 


Under  his  administration  the  United  States  had  attained  a 
prosperous  financial  and  industrial  condition  and  won  the 
respect  of  foreign  nations. 

He  took  leave  of  the  people  in  a  farewell  address  which 
has  become  one  of  the  famous  state  papers  of  the  United 
States,  it  being  filled  with  the  most  patriotic  and  statesman 
like  sentiments.  His  period  of  private  life  was  not  long. 
In  less  than  three  years  this  noble  man,  the  "  Father  of  his 
Country,"  died. 

2,  5obn  Bfcams's  Hfcministration. 

Condition  of  the  Country. — John  Adams l  was  inaugu 
rated  President  at  Philadelphia  on 
March  4,  1797.  He  came  into  office  at 
a  time  of  promise  and  growing  pros 
perity.  The  national  debt  had  been 
funded  and  much  of  it  paid.  The 
revenue  was  abundant  for  the  coun 
try's  needs.  The  Indians  were  quiet, 
the  threatened  war  with  England  had 
been,  avoided,  the  commercial  and 
agricultural  interests  of  the  country 
were  rapidly  developing,  and  some  progress  in  manufactur 
ing  had  been  made. 

1  John  Adams  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1735.  He  was  a  mem 
her  of  both  Colonial  Congresses,  and  earnestly  advocated  the  adoption 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
France  in  1777,  and  spent  most  of  the  next  ten  years  abroad,  being  one 
of  the  commissioners  who  negotiated  the  treaty  of  peace  of  1783.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention.  After  serving  as 
Vice-President  and  President,  he  died  on  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
American  independence,  July  4,  1826,  his  last  words  being,  "  Thomas 
Jefferson  still  survives."  By  a  remarkable  coincidence  Jefferson  died 
on  the  same  day. 


JOHN  ADAMS. 


JOHN   ADAMS'S   ADMINISTRATION.  257 

Hostile  Relations  with  France. — In  one  direction  only 
were  there  threats  of  trouble.  The  Jay  treaty  had  estab 
lished  peaceful  relations  with  Great  Britain,  but  it  greatly 
displeased  France,  whose  government  thought  that  America 
should  repay  her  aid  in  the  Revolution  by  siding  with  her 
against  Great  Britain.  The  election  of  Adams  to  the  Presi 
dency  instead  of  Jefferson,  the  friend  of  France,  added  to 
the  anger  of  the  revolutionary  government,  and  the  Ameri 
can  minister  was  ordered  to  leave  that  country.1 

How  the  Envoys  were  Treated. — This  was  almost 
equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war.  France,  in  fact,  began 
actual  war  by  ordering  her  cruisers  to  capture  American 
vessels,  of  which,  it  is  estimated,  as  many  as  a  thousand 
were  taken.  President  Adams,  feeling  that  the  country 
was  in  no  condition  for  war,  sent  three  envoys  to  France, 
with  instructions  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  if  possible.  They 
were  treated  with  indignity,  and  were  privately  advised  that 
they  would  not  be  received  officially  unless  they  agreed  to 
pay  the  French  government  a  quarter  of  a  million  dollars. 
To  this  suggestion  of  bribery  Charles  Pinckney,  one  of  the 
envoys,  indignantly  replied,  "  Millions  for  defence,  but  not 
one  cent  for  tribute,"  a  sentiment  which  became  highly 
popular  in  the  States.  Soon  after  two  of  the  envoys  were 
ordered  to  leave  the  country.  Elbridge  Gerry  remained, 
but  his  stay  proved  useless. 

1  The  sympathy  with  the  French  revolutionists  was  wide-spread  in 
America.  Numerous  clubs  were  formed  in  imitation  of  the  republican 
clubs  of  France.  French  fashions  of  dress  and  speech  were  imitated. 
It  was  then  that  men  began  to  wear  trousers,  in  place  of  the  knee- 
breeches  and  long  stockings  of  earlier  times.  Jefferson,  who  had 
lately  returned  from  France,  was  in  full  sympathy  with  the  revolution 
ists.  The  Federal  party  favored  them  at  first,  but  changed  its  opinion 
when  their  violent  excesses  began. 

17 


258  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

Warlike  Sentiment. — In  April,  1798,  the  whole  corre 
spondence  with  the  agents  of  Prince  Talleyrand,  the  French 
minister,  was  published.  Their  letters  were  signed  X. 
Y.  Z.,  and  the  papers  became  known  as  the  "  X.  Y.  Z.  de 
spatches."  On  reading  them  the  whole  country  burst  into 
warlike  fury.  "  Millions  for  defence ;  not  one  cent  for 
tribute,"  became  the  war-cry  of  the  people.  Acts  of  Con 
gress  were  passed  to  increase  the  army  and  navy,  Wash 
ington  reluctantly  consenting  to  accept  the  command  of  the 
former.  The  naval  vessels  were  ordered  to  capture  French 
armed  ships,  and  several  were  taken. 

Ocean  Battles. — In  February,  1799,  a  naval  battle  took 
place  between  the  new  38-gun  frigate  Constellation  and  the 
French  38-gun  frigate  L'Insurgente.  The  French  vessel 
was  captured.  This  was  followed  by  another  obstinate 
fight,  in  which  Captain  Truxton,  in  the  Constellation,  cap 
tured  the  La  Vengeance,  of  fifty-four  guns.  The  French, 
astonished  and  dismayed  by  these  unlooked-for  losses,  now 
grew  anxious  for  peace.  The  Federal  party,  of  which 
Adams  was  the  head,  desired  war,  but  he  desired  peace, 
and  succeeded  in  having  a  satisfactory  treaty  made  with 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  now  First  Consul  of  France. 

The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws. — The  troubles  with 
France  caused  Congress  to  pass  two  laws  which  proved 
very  unpopular,  and  did  much  to  arouse  opposition  to  the 
Adams  administration.  They  were  due  to  two  causes, — 
the  hostile  activity  of  French  emissaries  in  this  country,  and 
the  virulent  abuse  of  the  President,  and  even  of  Washing 
ton,  by  the  papers  of  the  opposite  party.  These  were 
known  as  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws. 

By  the  Alien  Law  the  President  was  given  power  to 
banish  from  the  country  any  foreigner  whose  actioji  he 
considered  dangerous,  and  to  imprison  him  if  he  returned. 


JOHN   ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION.  259 

The  Sedition  Law  was  aimed  at  the  hostile  newspapers, 
and  gave  the  right  to  punish  by  fine  and  imprisonment  any 
one  who  should  publish  anything  false  or  malicious  against 
Congress  or  the  President. 

Effect  of  these  Laws. — These  laws,  passed  in  1798, 
greatly  injured  the  Federal  party.  The  people  declared 
them  unconstitutional,  as  interfering  with  personal  liberty 
and  freedom  of  speech.  The  legislatures  of  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  passed  resolutions  against  them,  Kentucky  de 
claring  that  a  State  has  the  right  to  nullify  any  act  of  Con 
gress  which  violates  the  Constitution.1  The  Alien  Law  was 
never  enforced ;  the  Sedition  Law  was,  on  several  occa 
sions. 

Death  of  Washington. — In  December,  1799,  Washing 
ton,  while  attending  to  some  duties  on  his  estate,  became 
wet  in  a  storm,  and  in  consequence  took  a  severe  cold. 
Fever  followed,  and  on  the  night  of  December  14  he  died. 
Thus  passed  away,  in  his  sixty-eighth  year,  the  noblest  of 
the  Americans,  justly  entitled  "first  in  war,  first  in  peace, 
and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."  The  whole 
country  united  in  paying  honor  to  his  memory,  and  his 
tomb  at  Mount  Vernon  has  become  a  hallowed  shrine  to 
patriotic  Americans. 

The  New  Election. — During  the  whole  of  the  Adams  ad 
ministration  party  feeling  ran  high.  The  Republican  party 
increased  in  strength,  and  the  Federal  party  lost  many  of 
its  adherents.  In  the  election  of  November,  1800,  Adams 
and  Pinckney  were  the  Federal,  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr 


1  To  nullify  a  law  means  to  refuse  to  allow  its  enforcement  within 
the  State.  Such  a  principle  would  soon  break  up  the  Union.  The 
United  States  has  never  acknowledged  this  right,  and  put  down  by 
force  the  effort  at  nullification  made  by  South  Carolina  some  thirty 
years  afterward. 


260  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPURLIC. 

the  Republican  candidates.  The  rule  of  making  the  candi 
date  who  received  the  highest  electoral  vote  President,  and 
the  second  on  the  list  Vice-President,  now  caused  trouble, 
since  Jefferson  and  Burr  each  received  seventy-three  votes. 
Adams  received  sixty-five. 

In  consequence  it  became  necessary  for  the  House  of 
Representatives  to  decide  which  of  the  two  Republican  can 
didates  should  be  President.  Jefferson  was  the  strongest 
in  the  House,  but  some  Federalists  intrigued  against  him, 
the  result  being  that  he  was  elected  only  a  fortnight  before 
the  end  of  Adams's  term. 

The  Twelfth  Amendment. — It  was  evident  from  this  that 
the  Constitution  was  faulty,  since  an  occasion  might  arise  in 
which  the  country  would  be  left  without  a  President.  To 
avoid  such  a  danger  a  new  amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
the  twelfth,  was  prepared  and  passed  in  1804.  Since  then 
it  has  been  specially  declared  which  can 
didates  run  for  President  and  which  for 
Vice-President. 

Chief   Justice  Marshall. — On   January 
S;^^^L^,     31,  1801,  the  eminent  jurist,  John  Marshall, 
was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  United 
States,  a  position  which  he  held  with  the 
highest  honor  for  thirty-four  years.     Five 
days  after  the  death  of  Washington  he  had 
offered  in  Congress  a  series  of  resolutions, 
prepared  by  General  Henry  Lee,  in  which  the  deceased  hero 
is  truthfully  described  as  "  first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and 
first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen.1" 


JEFFERSON'S   ADMINISTRATION.  261 

3.  Jefferson's  Hfcministration. 

The  New  President. — Thomas  Jefferson  was  a  democrat, 
a  man  of  the  people,  and  in  sympathy  with  the  "  republican 
simplicity"  which  he  had  observed  in 
France.  In  this  respect  he  differed  essen 
tially  from  Washington  and  Adams,  who, 
while  opposed  to  monarchy,  felt  it  due 
to  their  position  to  keep  up  a  degree  of 
pomp  and  ceremony.  He  took  the  oath 
of  office  without  any  ceremonious  dis- 
play,  and  was  ready  to  meet  all  visitors 

,.       .         .      _  I.,     i  THOMAS  JEFFERSON. 

on  the  level  of  perfect  equality.1 

His  inauguration  took  place  in  the  new  capitol,  which  had 
been  erected  on  an  elevated  place  in  the  Federal  city  of 
Washington,  which  at  that  time  contained  only  a  few  hun 
dred  inhabitants,  though  it  was  laid  out  on  a  magnificent 
scale. 

Jefferson's  practice  differed  from  that  of  Washington  and 
Adams  in  another  particular.  It  had  been  their  custom, 
when  communicating  with  Congress,  to  appear  in  person, 
and  address  the  two  Houses  from  the  floor.  Jefferson 


1  Thomas  Jefferson  was  a  native  of  Virginia,  born  April  2, 1743.  He 
studied  law,  became  a  member  of  the  House  of  Rurgesses  in  1768,  and 
of  the  Continental  Congress.  He  was  almost  wholly  the  author  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  the  most  famous  of  American  state  papers. 
He  served  as  governor  of  Virginia  during  the  Revolution,  was  appointed 
minister  to  France  in  1785,  became  Secretary  of  State  under  Washing 
ton,  and  later  was  elected  Vice-President  under  Adams.  He  died  on 
the  same  day  with  Adams,  July  4,  1826.  He  was  an  accomplished 
scholar,  deeply  interested  in  science  and  philosophy,  and  fond  of  music 
and  out-door  sports.  The  University  of  Virginia  was  founded  by  him. 
Though  many  feared  a  serious  reversal  of  the  work  of  his  predecessors 
under  his  administration,  none  such  took  place,  and  the  dread  of  revo 
lutionary  changes  soon  passed  away. 


262  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

wrote  his  communications  and  sent  them  in  to  be  read. 
This  method  has  been  followed  since,  all  Presidents  ad 
dressing  Congress  in  written  messages. 

"War  with  Tripoli. — An  important  assertion  of  the  dignity 
of  the  United  States  was  made  in  the  Mediterranean,  where 
for  centuries  the  Barbary  states  had  followed  the  practice 
of  piracy  and  preyed  on  the  commerce  of  other  states.  The 
maritime  nations  of  Europe  had  rescued  their  ships  and 
sailors  from  these  raids  by  paying  annual  tributes,  and  the 
United  States  had  consented  to  do  the  same. 

In  1801  the  Bashaw  of  Tripoli  demanded  a  larger  trib 
ute,  threatening  war  against  the  United  States  unless  the 
present  demanded  was  received  within 
six  months.  This  threat  was  more 
than  President  Jefferson  was  disposed 
to  endure.  A  million  dollars  had 
already  been  paid  for  the  rescue  of 
American  sailors  held  in  the  cruel 
bondage  of  Tripolitan  slavery.  He 
now  instead  sent  a  fleet  of  war  vessels 
to  the  Mediterranean  arid  bombarded 
the  city  of  Tripoli.  The  war  continued 
until  1805,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
the  Bashaw  was  glad  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace.1  The 


1  In  the  war  with  Tripoli  a  memorable  event  took  place.  One  of  the 
American  fleet,  the  Philadelphia,  ran  aground  in  the  harbor  and  was 
abandoned  to  the  Tripolitans,  who  began  to  fit  her  up  for  a  man-of-war. 
Stephen  Decatur,  then  a  lieutenant,  volunteered  to  destroy  this  prize 
of  the  enemy,  and  made  his  way  into  the  harbor  in  a  small  captured 
vessel.  Reaching  the  Philadelphia  without  suspicion  being  aroused, 
the  concealed  crew  suddenly  appeared  and  leaped  on  board,  driving  the 
Tripolitans  overboard  and  setting  the  ship  on  fire.  They  then  sailed 
out  under  fire  from  the  batteries  of  the  port  without  losing  a  man. 


JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  263 

other  Barbary  states  soon  made  similar  treaties,  and  from 
that  time  on  the  United  States  ceased  to  pay  them  piratical 
blackmail. 

Ohio  Admitted. — Ohio,  the  first  State  formed  out  of  the 
Northwestern  Territory,  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1803. 
Its  growth  had  been  very  great.  Its  first  settlement  was 
made  at  Marietta  in  1788,  and  in  1800  the  population  had 
reached  forty-five  thousand  three  hundred  and  sixty-five. 
It  was  the  fourth  new  State  to  be  admitted. 

Louisiana. — Of  the  events  occurring  in  Jefferson's  ad 
ministration  the  most  important  was  the  purchase  of  Lou 
isiana.  By  her  possession  of  this  territory  Spain  controlled 
the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  was  able  to  shut 
the  Western  States  out  from  access  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Such  a  condition  of  affairs  was  not  likely  to  be  long  endured 
by  the  rapidly  increasing  population  of  the  West.  Unless 
this  great  water  outlet  could  be  enjoyed  in  peace  the  ques 
tion  of  its  possession  was  certain  in  the  end  to  lead  to  war. 
France  had  given  Louisiana  to  Spain  in  1763.  By  a  secret 
treaty  in  1801  Spain  gave  it  back  to  France,  Napoleon 
having  the  design  of  planting  a  colony  there. 

Monroe  Sent  to  Prance. — Jefferson  learned  of  this  oper 
ation  in  1802,  and  at  the  same  time  was  reminded  of  the 
difficulty  likely  to  arise,  from  the  fact  that  the  Spanish  com 
mandant,  still  in  control,  issued  an  order  in  October  of  that 
year  closing  the  port  of  New  Orleans  to  American  vessels. 
It  became  highly  important  to  endeavor  to  buy  the  island 
of  New  Orleans,  which  commanded  the  navigation  of  two 
branches  of  the  river,  and  in  1803  James  Monroe  was  sent 
to  France,  as  a  special  envoy,  for  this  purpose.  Two  mil 
lion  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  was  the  sum  which  he 
was  instructed  to  offer. 

The  Louisiana  Purchase. — Napoleon  was  found  to  be 


264  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

quite  ready  to  dispose  of  his  new  possession.  He  was  hard 
pressed  by  war,  needed  money  badly,  and  feared  that  the 
British  fleet  would  rob  him  of  this  distant  province  and 
leave  him  no  territory  to  sell.  He  therefore  went  beyond 
the  demand  and  offered  the  whole  vast  domain  of  Louisiana 
to  the  United  States  for  the  sum  of  fifteen  million  dollars.1 

This  was  an  offer  and  a  price  far  beyond  what  the  Presi 
dent  had  thought  of.  He  had  only  asked  for  the  island  of 
New  Orleans,  but  he  was  quick  to  perceive  the  vast  advantage 
such  an  acquisition  would  prove  to  the  country,  and  made 
haste  to  accept  the  great  bargain  offered  him.  Thus  by  a 
stroke  of  the  pen  he  more  than  doubled  the  area  of  the 
United  States,  winning  the  mighty  region  between  the  Mis 
sissippi  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  some  shadow  of  a 
claim  to  the  country  beyond  that  range. 

The  Country  Unknown. — Little  was  known  of  the  great 
country  which  Jefferson  had  bought.  Its  area,  its  inhab 
itants,  its  products  and  possibilities  were  alike  unknown. 
And  west  of  the  mountains  lay  another  wide  region,  named 
Oregon,  in  all  respects  a  mystery.  Its  coast  had  been  sev 
eral  times  explored.  Captain  Gray  had  sailed  twenty  miles 
up  its  great  river.  No  nation  had  as  yet  laid  any  special 
claim  to  it.  No  one  dreamed  that  within  a  century  that 
whole  country  would  be  covered  by  the  spreading  United 
States. 

The  Expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark. — With  a  natural 
desire  to  learn  something  about  the  far-spreading  region  of 
the  West,  President  Jefferson  in  1804  sent  out  an  expedition 


1  Napoleon  demanded  an  immediate  answer,  and  his  offer  was  ac 
cepted  by  Monroe  and  the  American  minister,  who  were  not  willing  to 
run  any  risk  of  losing  so  great  a  bargain.  They  then  sent  Jefferson 
word  of  what  they  had  done. 


JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  265 

to  explore  it,  led  by  Captains  Meriwether  Lewis  and  William 
Clark.  Starting  from  St.  Louis  (then  a  village  of  log  cabins), 
they  made  their  way  up  the  Missouri  to  its  source.  Then 
crossing  the  mountains,  they  found  the  head- waters  of 
another  stream.  It  led  to  a  broad  river,  down  which  they 
boated  till  the  Pacific  Ocean  was  reached.  It  was  the  Co 
lumbia,  which  Captain  Gray  had  discovered  and  named  in 
1792.  The  explorers  returned  in  1806. 

They  had  been  gone  nearly  two  and  a  half  years,  had 
travelled  over  eight  thousand  miles,  and  had  a  remarkably 
interesting  story  to  tell  of  the  country,  its  people,  wealth 
and  wonders,  and  of  the  exciting  adventures  of  their  journey. 
Their  report  put  an  end  to  all  question  of  the  value  of 
Jefferson's  purchase. 

Jefferson  again  Elected. — Jefferson's  first  administra 
tion  was  a  highly  prosperous  one.  The  war  between  France 
and  Great  Britain  had  for  the  time  ceased,  and  American 
commerce  was  little  troubled.  The  President  grew  so 
popular  that  in  the  election  of  1804  he  was  re-elected  by 
almost  the  entire  electoral  vote.  George  Clinton  was  elected 
Vice-President.  Aaron  Burr,  the  former  Vice-President 
had  ruined  his  reputation  by  disgraceful  political  intrigues, 
and  had  ended  by  killing  his  political  opponent,  Alexander 
Hamilton,1  in  a  duel. 


1  Alexander  Hamilton  was  born  on  the  island  of  Nevis,  West  Indies, 
in  1757.  He  came  to  New  York  in  1772,  and  displayed  great  ability  as 
a  speaker  and  writer  when  but  eighteen.  He  became  a  captain  of 
artillery  in  1776,  and  afterward  aide-de-camp  and  secretary  to  Washing 
ton.  After  serving  in  several  public  capacities  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Constitutional  Convention,  and  was  the  principal  author  of  the 
brilliant  political  essays  which  were  afterward  published  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Federalist."  He  resigned  his  secretaryship  in  1795  and 
returned  to  the  practice  of  the  law. 


266  THE  EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

Burr  Tried  for  Treason. — This  action  aroused  against 
him  the  deepest  indignation.  His  political  career  was  at  an 
end,  and  he  now  formed  a  plot  to  conquer  Texas,  then  part 
of  Mexico,  proposing  to  found  an  independent  nation,  with 
New  Orleans  for  its  capital.  He  organized  an  expedition  for 
this  purpose,  but  his  scheme  was  suspected  and  the  expedi 
tion  broken  up,  he  being  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason. 
He  was  tried  in  1807  and  acquitted,  as  his  guilt  could  not  be 
proved.  But  he  had  destroyed  his  influence,  and  afterward 
died  in  New  York  a  poor  and  obscure  old  man. 

The  Steamboat  Invented. — In  the  year  of  Burr's  trial, 
1807,  an  important  invention  was  brought  to  public  notice. 
Robert  Fulton,  who  had  long  been  experimenting  on  the 
application  of  steam-power  to  boats,  launched  a  steamboat, 
the  Clermont,  on  the  Hudson.  This  boat  was  rude  and 
clumsy  in  its  machinery,  but  in  thirty-two  hours  it  made  its 
way  against  wind  and  stream  to  Albany,  greatly  to  the  public 
surprise. 

In  a  few  years  this  invention  made  a  vast  change  in  modes 
of  travel.  Placed  upon  the  Western  rivers,  the  steamboat 
aided  greatly  in  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  West.  It  proved 
also  useful  for  coast  travel,  and  in  1819  the  Savannah,  the 
first  ocean  steamship,  made  its  way  by  sails  and  steam 
across  the  Atlantic  from  Savannah,  Georgia.1 


1  John  Fitch's  steamboat,  which  ran  on  the  Delaware  in  1790,  had 
failed  to  attract  attention,  and  the  inventor,  in  despair,  committed  sui 
cide.  Fulton's  success  arose  from  his  use  of  side  paddle-wheels.  In 
1808,  John  Stevens  put  another  paddle-wheel  steamboat  on  the  Dela 
ware.  The  first  steamboat  on  the  Mississippi,  the  Orleans,  with  a  stern 
wheel,  made  the  trip  from  Pittsburg  to  New  Orleans  in  fourteen  days. 
In  regard  to  the  Savannah,  the  story  is  told  that  a  member  of  the  Brit 
ish  Parliament,  ridiculing  the  idea,  remarked  that  he  would  eat  the 
first  steamship  that  crossed  the  Atlantic.  About  the  same  time  the 


JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  267 

Public  Improvements. — In  his  inaugural  address  in 
1805,  President  Jefferson  recommended  that  the  surplus 
revenue  should  be  used  for  public  improvements.  He 
thought  the  Constitution  would  need  to  be  amended  for 
this  purpose,  but  Congress  did  not  think  so,  and  a  bill  was 
passed  in  1806  voting  money  for  a  national  road  to  the 
West,  starting  from  Cumberland,  Maryland.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  national  works  for  the  development  of  the 
country. 

The  Slave-Trade  Abolished. — In  1807  a  bill  was  passed 
prohibiting  the  foreign  slave-trade  after  January  1,  1808. 
This  was  in  accordance  with  a  provision  in  the  Constitution 
(Art.  I.,  Sec.  9). 

Commercial  Troubles. — The  commercial  prosperity  of 
America  in  Jefferson's  first  term  ceased  in  his  second.  Na 
poleon  Bonaparte  became  Emperor  of  France  in  1804,  and 
the  war  with  Great  Britain  was  resumed  and  raged  more 
fiercely  than  ever.  The  United  States,  being  a  neutral 
power,  was  able  to  trade  with  all  the  fighting  nations  of 
Europe.  This  was  stopped  by  proclamations  from  England 
and  France  in  1806  and  1807,  which  rendered  a  vessel 
trading  with  almost  any  of  the  ports  of  Europe  liable  to 
seizure  and  confiscation.  England  seized  those  sailing  to 
ports  under  French  influence.  France  did  the  same  with 
those  sailing  to  British  ports.  Between  the  two  no  com 
mercial  vessel  was  safe. 

Impressment  of  Seamen. — The  commercial  difficulty 
was  not  the  worst.  Serious  as  it  proved,  it  had  some 
excuse  as  a  necessity  of  war.  But  what  particularly 


Savannah  steamed  into  the  harbor  of  Liverpool.  In  1825  the  steam 
ship  Enterprise  made  its  way  from  America  to  India  by  way  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 


268  THE   EARLY    PERIOD   OF   THE   REPUBLIC. 

aroused  American  anger  was  the  stopping  of  our  vessels 
and  impressment  of  our  seamen  by  British  ships  of  war. 
This  was  done  under  the  claim  that  they  were  British  sub 
jects.  This  matter  had  been  left  unsettled  in  Jay's  treaty, 
and  now  became  a  serious  evil.  France  did  not  offend  in 
this  way,  since  no  American  could  well  be  mistaken  for  a 
French  citizen.  Therefore  the  wrath  of  the  people  was 
principally  directed  against  England. 

The  Chesapeake  Affair. — In  1807  an  event  took  place 
which  nearly  led  to  war.  The  British  frigate  Leopard, 
cruising  on  our  coast,  hailed  the  American  frigate  Chesa 
peake,  and  demanded  permission  to  search  her  crew.  The 
captain  of  the  Chesapeake  refused,  whereupon  the  Leopard 
fired  several  broadsides  into  her,  killing  and  wounding 
more  than  twenty  of  her  men.  The  captain  of  the  Chesa 
peake,  who  had  not  dreamed  of  such  an  outrage,  and  who 
had  not  a  gun  in  readiness  to  return  the  fire,  was  obliged 
to  haul  down  his  flag.  Officers  from  the  Leopard  then 
came  on  board  and  carried  off  four  men  from  the  crew, 
claiming  that  they  were  deserters  from  the  British  navy. 

The  resentment  against  this  indignity  was  extreme.  The 
United  States  would  probably  have  declared  war  at  once 
had  not  England  been  prompt  to  disavow  the  act  and 
agreed  to  make  reparation  for  it. 

The  Embargo  Act. — The  President  was  well  aware  that 
the  country  was  in  no  condition  for  war,  but  could  not 
well  let  such  an  insult  to  the  American  flag  pass  without 
some  action.  He  issued  a  proclamation  forbidding  British 
cruisers  to  enter  American  ports,  and  called  Congress  to 
gether  in  extra  session  to  decide  what  should  be  done. 
Congress  (not  with  great  wisdom,  as  it  proved)  passed  an 
Embargo  Act  (1807).  This  forbade  American  vessels  to 
set  sail  for  any  foreign  port,  and  foreign  vessels  to  load 


JEFFERSON'S   ADMINISTRATION.  269 

in  American  ports.  Only  the  coasting  trade  was  per 
mitted. 

Effects  of  the  Embargo. — It  was  believed  that  this  would 
seriously  injure  England  and  France.  It  did  them  some 
harm,  but  it  injured  this  country  far  more.  It  virtually 
destroyed  American  commerce.  Our  ships  were  left  to 
rot  at  their  wharves,  our  seamen  sought  employment 
abroad,  and  the  trade  of  the  world  was  carried  in  British 
ships. 

New  England  suffered  the  most,  since  it  was  the  chief 
centre  of  American  commerce.  Congress  refused  to  repeal 
the  act,  and  many  of  the  former  merchants  turned  their 
attention  to  manufacture,  which  now  rapidly  developed. 
The  Embargo  Act  was  felt  less  immediately  in  the  South, 
though  the  cutting  off  of  a  foreign  market  for  the  produce 
of  the  farm  and  plantation  in  time  became  everywhere  a 
serious  .evil. 

The  Non-Intercourse  Act. — In  1809,  just  before  the 
close  of  Jefferson's  administration,  it  began  to  appear  that 
if  the  Embargo  Act  was  continued  in  force  New  England 
might  secede  from  the  Union.  It  was  therefore  repealed, 
and  a  Non-Intercourse  Act  passed  in  its  place.  This  de 
clared  that  no  American  ships  should  trade  with  England 
and  France,  but  it  left  commerce  with  all  other  nations 
free. 

The  Election  of  18O8. — Jefferson  was  requested  by  the 
legislatures  of  nearly  all  the  Republican  States  to  become  a 
candidate  for  a  third  term.  He  refused,  as  Washington  had 
done  before  him.  James  Madison  was  thereupon  made  the 
party  candidate,  and  was  elected  by  one  hundred  and 
twenty-nine  votes,  against  forty-seven  for  Charles  C.  Pinck- 
ney,  the  Federal  party's  candidate.  George  Clinton,  late 
Vice-President,  was  re-elected  to  that  office. 


270  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 


4,  flnafcison's  Hfcmintetration. 

Madison's  Policy.  —  James  Madison  wore,  when  inaugu 
rated,  "  a  full  suit  of  woollen  cloth,  the  wool  being  from 
sheep  raised  in  the  United  States  and 
the  cloth  from  American  factories." 
He  proposed,  he  said,  to  show  what 
Americans  can  do  when  their  work 
is  protected  by  the  tariff  against 
foreign  competition.  Madison,  like 
Washington  and  Jefferson  before  him, 
remained  President  for  eight  years, 
but  he  found  no  opportunity  to  carry 

JAMES  MADISON.  Qut  ^  tariff  p()licy  thug  p^oged.1 

The  Foreign  Situation.  —  Personally  Madison  was  a  man 
of  great  learning  and  fine  intellectual  powers.  But  he  was 
essentially  a  man  of  peace,  one  ill  calculated  to  manage  or 
control  a  war,  and  who  felt,  like  the  three  Presidents  before 
him,  that  peace  was  the  best  policy  for  the  United  States. 

Unfortunately,  peace  could  not  be  maintained  with  honor. 
The  greatest  struggle  of  centuries  was  going  on  in  Europe, 
and  its  effects  were  severely  felt  in  America.  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  had  conquered  much  of  the  continent  and  was 
at  war  with  the  remainder.  Great  Britain  was  his  bitterest 


1  James  Madison  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1751.  It  was  he  who  sug 
gested  the  conference  at  Annapolis  which  led  to  the  Constitutional  Con 
vention,  and  in  the  latter  he  did  such  excellent  work  that  he  was  named 
the  "  Father  of  the  Constitution."  His  political  views  were  the  same 
as  those  of  Jefferson,  under  whom  he  became  Secretary  of  State.  In 
character  he  was  kindly  and  courteous,  simple  in  manner,  and  modest 
in  disposition.  His  memory  was  remarkable,  and  he  was  able  to  make 
the  fullest  use  of  his  abundant  stores  of  learning.  "  When  he  had  fin 
ished  nothing  remained  to  be  said."  He  died  in  1836. 


MADISON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  271 

enemy.  The  ocean  was  traversed  in  all  directions  by  the 
French  and  British  ships  of  war,  and  American  commerce 
suffered  more  and  more  severely  as  time  went  on.  The 
Embargo  Act  had  done  more  harm  than  good.  The  Non- 
Intercourse  Act  had  failed  to  remedy  the  trouble.  The 
outrages  continued.  It  looked  almost  as  if  France  and 
England  were  determined  to  subject  this  country  to  disgrace 
or  drive  it  into  war. 

Commerce  still  Fettered. — In  1810  Congress  promised 
to  repeal  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  if  France  and  England 
would  agree  to  respect  American  commerce.  A  double 
deception  followed.  The  British  minister  at  Washington 
agreed  that  our  commerce  should  not  be  molested  if  we 
would  promise  to  trade  with  England  and  her  allies,  but 
not  with  France.  An  agreement  was  made.  More  than  a 
thousand  vessels,  loaded  with  American  produce,  crossed 
the  seas.  All  the  people  were  full  of  hope,  thinking  that 
the  fetters  of  commerce  had  been  cut.  They  were  doomed 
to  disappointment.  The  English  government  declared  that 
the  promise  was  a  mistake,  that  the  minister  had  acted 
without  authority,  and  refused  to  accept  the  agreement. 
The  trade  ended  as  soon  as  it  began. 

Napoleon's  Double-Dealing1. — The  mistake  of  the  Brit 
ish  minister  was  followed  by  an  act  of  base  duplicity  on  the 
part  of  Napoleon.  He  had  already  seized  and  sold  hun 
dreds  of  American  ships  under  his  decrees  of  paper  block 
ade  of  European  ports.  He  now  agreed  to  withdraw  his 
hostility  to  American  commerce  if  trade  with  his  ports  and 
those  of  his  allies  were  restored.  Congress  took  him  at 
his  word  and  repealed  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  so  far  as 
France  was  concerned.  Many  merchant  ships  made  their 
way  to  French  ports.  They  were  well  treated,  and  others 
followed.  Napoleon  had  spread  his  net  wide  to  catch  these 


272  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPURLIC. 

innocent  dupes.  Suddenly,  under  an  order  which  had  been 
kept  secret,  all  these  vessels  were  seized,  and  the  imperial 
robber  stole  at  one  grasp  ten  million  dollars  from  American 
citizens. 

Hostile  Relations  with  England. — War  was  almost  un 
avoidable,  yet  it  was  a  question  against  which  nation  it  should 
be  declared.  Napoleon's  act  of  piracy  was  abundant  provo 
cation,  yet  England  managed  to  sting  this  country  still  more 
deeply.  The  impressment  of  American  seamen  by  British 
men-of-war  continued.  In  all,  during  the  period  in  ques 
tion,  more  than  six  thousand  men  were  thus  seized.  Be 
tween  1803  and  1812  more  than  nine  hundred  American 
vessels  were  captured  by  British  cruisers  on  various  pre 
texts.  From  every  part  of  the  country  went  up  the  war- 
cry,  "  Free-trade  and  sailors'  rights."  l 

Indian  Hostilities. — In  1811  an  Indian  war  broke  out. 
Tecumseh,  a  famous  Shawanese  chief,  tried  to  play  the  part 
of  Pontiac,  and  combine  the  tribes  against  the  whites.  Gen 
eral  William  Henry  Harrison  was  sent  against  him.  A 
treacherous  night  attack  was  made  upon  Harrison's  camp 
near  the  Tippecanoe  River,  but  the  soldiers  were  prepared, 
and  routed  the  savages  with  great  slaughter.  It  was  be 
lieved  in  the  West  that  British  emissaries  had  incited  the 
Indians  to  this  attack,  and  a  strong  warlike  sentiment  arose 
in  that  quarter. 

A  Naval  Event. — In  the  same  year  a  naval  event  added 
to  the  war  spirit.  British  war  vessels  had  been  sent  into 
American  waters  to  seize  our  merchant  ships  as  prizes. 
One  of  them,  the  sloop-of-war  Little  Belt,  when  hailed  by 
the  American  frigate  President,  replied  by  a  cannon-shot. 


1  By  this  was  meant  freedom  to  trade  with  any  port  and  the  right 
of  American  citizens  not  to  be  impressed  into  foreign  service. 


MADISON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  273 

The  President  answered  with  a  broadside.  After  the  Little 
Belt  had  lost  thirty-two  men  in  killed  and  wounded  a  civil 
answer  was  returned. 

The  Declaration  of  War. — As  will  be  seen  from  the 
facts  stated,  this  country  had  ample  cause  to  declare  war 
against  both  England  and  France.  But  hostility  to  the 
former  was  greater  than  to  the  latter.  Americans  looked 
upon  England  as  their  ancient  enemy  and  on  France  as  their 
ancient  friend.  And  the  behavior  of  England  had  been  more 
galling  to  national  pride.  Henry  Clay,  then  Speaker  of 
the  House,  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  other  ardent  and  able 
young  men,  strongly  advocated  war  with  Great  Britain. 
President  Madison  hesitated,  but  was  brought  over  to  their 
views,  and  on  June  18, 1812,  Congress  declared  war  against 
that  country.1 

The  War  Spirit. — Two  days  before  this  the  British  gov 
ernment  revoked  its  "  Orders  in  Council,11  under  which  the 
ships  of  America  had  been  seized.  But  even  if  this  had 
been  known  it  would  have  been  too  late,  for  the  war  spirit 
ran  too  high  to  be  controlled.  The  Federalists  opposed  the 
war,  but  they  were  weak  in  numbers.  In  the  election  of 
1812  they  obtained  only  ninety  electoral  votes  against  one 
hundred  and  twenty-eight  for  Madison.  Hostilities  were 
also  opposed  in  New  England,  where  injury  to  commerce 
and  fisheries  was  feared.  But  the  mass  of  the  people  were 
strong  for  war. 

The  Country  Unprepared. — Yet  the  country  was  very 

1  The  reasons  given  for  the  war  were :  the  impressment  of  American 
seamen ;  violation  of  neutral  rights  on  the  American  coast  by  British 
cruisers ;  the  British  "  Orders  in  Council"  (by  which  American  vessels 
were  forbidden  to  enter  any  ports  in  Europe  except  those  of  Great 
Britain  and  her  ally,  Sweden) ;  and  the  inciting  of  the  Indians  to  war 
against  the  United  States. 

18 


274  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

poorly  prepared  for  hostilities.  Its  army  was  small,  its 
troops  were  undisciplined,  its  generals  without  experience 
or  ability.  The  navy  comprised  only  twelve  vessels  of  any 
strength,  against  which  the  British  could  oppose  a  thousand, 
more  than  a  hundred  of  them  heavily  armed  and  powerful 
ships.  War  with  no  better  preparation  than  this  seemed 
madness,  yet  the  provocation  had  been  great,  and  the  people 
were  bent  on  obtaining  redress  for  their  wrongs. 

5.    THE   SECOND   WAR   WITH    GREAT    BRITAIN. 

The  Seat  of  War.— The  war  that  followed  the  declara 
tion  was  largely  confined  to  two  quarters,  the  ocean  and 
the  Canadian  border  of  the  United  States.  The  land  con 
flict  was  mostly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Canada 
was  like  an  outpost  of  Great  Britain  in  America.  There  the 
foe  could  most  easily  be  reached,  and  thither  the  American 
armies  marched. 

The  Surrender  of  Detroit. — Even  before  war  was  de 
clared,  General  William  Hull,  an  officer  who  had  given 
excellent  service  in  the  Revolution,  marched  to  Detroit, 
making  as  he  went  a  road  two  hundred  miles  long  through 
forests  and  swamps.  Finding  before  him  a  strong  force  of 
British  and  Indians,  he  took  refuge  in  the  fortress  at  Detroit, 
where  he  was  soon  besieged  by  the  British  General  Brock. 

A  disgraceful  event  now  took  place.  Without  firing  a 
gun  or  waiting  for  a  gun  to  be  fired  by  the  enemy,  Hull 
hoisted  the  signal  of  surrender — a  white  table-cloth — and 
gave  up  the  fort  and  town,  and  with  them  the  control  of  the 
Territory  of  Michigan,  to  the  enemy. 

Hull  Sentenced  to  Death. — This  act  filled  the  whole 
country  with  indignation.  Hull  was  declared  to  be  another 
Benedict  Arnold  ;  he  was  tried  by  court-martial,  convicted 
of  cowardice,  and  sentenced  to  be  shot.  The  President, 


THE   SECOND   WAR   WITH   GREAT   RRITAIN.  275 

however,  pardoned  him,  on  account  of  his  services  during 
the  Revolution.  It  is  now  thought  that  Hull  was  made  to 
suffer  for  the  faults  of  others. 

Harrison's  Campaign. — Later  in  the  year  Queenstown 
was  attacked  without  success,  and  on  January  22,  1813, 
General  Harrison,  who  was  marching  against  Detroit,  had 
his  advance-guard  defeated  by  a  force  of  British  and  In 
dians,  under  General  Proctor,  at  the  river  Raisin.  This 
engagement  ended  in  a  massacre,  Proctor  leaving  the  field 
and  permitting  the  Indians  to  butcher  all  the  American 
wounded. 

Canada  Invaded. — Later  in  1813  General  Dearborn  in 
vaded  Canada,  and  General  Pike  made  an  attack  on  York 
(now  Toronto),  the  Canadian  capital.  Pike  was  killed  by 
the  explosion  of  the  enemy's  magazine,  but  the  town  was 
taken  and  the  Parliament  House  burned.  An  expedition 
was  also  projected  against  Montreal,  but  this  ended  in 
failure. 

Causes  of  Failure. — In  truth,  the  American  government 
had  declared  war  in  blind  haste  and  without  any  rational 
measures  of  preparation.  The  regular  army  was  too  small 
to  be  of  much  value.  The  militia  were  undisciplined, 
poorly  equipped,  ill  provided.  The  generals  were  incom 
petent.  The  invasion  of  Canada,  which  had  seemed  a 
feasible  project,  had  proved  a  disastrous  failure,  the  Terri 
tory  of  Michigan  being  lost  and  Ohio  in  danger  of  being 
overrun  by  the  foe. 

The  Constitution  and  Guerriere. — Yet  while  unfortu 
nate  on  land,  the  Americans  had  been  surprisingly  success 
ful  at  sea.  The  British  navy,  proud  of  its  success  against 
the  French,  found  itself  suddenly  humiliated  by  the  hand 
ful  of  American  ships  of  war.  A  series  of  unpleasant 
surprises  began  on  August  13,  1812,  when  the  frigate  Essex 


276  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

captured  the  British  sloop-of-war  Alert  in  an  eight  min 
utes'  fight  and  without  losing  a  man. 

Six  days  afterward  a  more  equal  arid  significant  fight 
took  place.  The  frigate  Constitution,  of  forty-four  guns, 
commanded  by  Captain  Isaac  Hull,  met  the  38-gun  British 
frigate  Guerriere  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  fight 
that  followed  lasted  half  an  hour.  Its  results  were  sur 
prising.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  Guerriere  had  lost 
one  hundred  men ;  her  masts  and  rigging  were  all  gone ; 
her  hull  was  so  cut  up  that  the  water  was  pouring  in.  The 
Constitution  had  lost  but  fourteen  men  and  was  still  in 
fighting  trim.  The  Guerriere  was  forced  to  surrender,  and 
her  crew  had  barely  been  taken  off  when  she  plunged  to 
the  bottom  of  the  bay. 

Other  Naval  Victories. — This  unlooked-for  success  was 
followed  by  others.  On  October  13  the  American  sloop 
Wasp  captured  the  British  sloop  Frolic.  On  the  25th  the 
frigate  United  States  captured  the  Macedonian.  This  ship 
was  left  almost  in  the  condition  of  the  Guerriere,  while  the 
United  States  lost  but  twelve  men  and  was  but  little  the 
worse  for  the  encounter.  On  the  29th  of  December  the 
Constitution,  now  under  Captain  Bainbridge,  won  another 
striking  victory.  Meeting  the  British  frigate  Java  off  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  a  two  hours'  contest  followed.  At  the  end 
of  that  time  the  Java  was  a  total  wreck,  and  had  lost  two 
hundred  and  thirty  men.  In  February,  1813,  the  sloop 
Hornet  met  the  British  ship  Peacock,  and  handled  her  so 
severely  that  she  sank  before  her  crew  could  be  taken  off. 

Causes  of  the  American  Success. — In  six  months  the 
Americans  had  taken  more  British  ships  than  the  French 
had  done  in  twenty  years,  and  had  not  lost  one.  This  was 
due  to  several  causes.  The  American  vessels  carried  more 
men  than  the  British,  and  these  were  mainly  the  hardy 


THE   SECOND  WAR   WITH   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


277 


fishermen  of  New  England,  men  who  had  made  the  waves 
their  homes.  The  ships  were  better  built,  the  crews  better 
disciplined,  the  gunners  better  marksmen.  Heavier  guns 
were  carried,  and  every  shot  told.  There  was  no  firing  at 
random  as  in  the  British  ships.  The  result  of  this  superi 
ority  in  men  and  equipment  was  the  remarkable  series  of 
victories  we  have  detailed. 

"Don't  Give  Up  the  Ship."— On  June  1,  1813,  the  Brit 
ish  navy  gained  its  first  success.     The  Shannon  captured 


CAPTURE  OF  THE  CYANE  AND  LEVANT  BY  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

the  Chesapeake  near  Boston  harbor.  Captain  Lawrence  of 
the  Chesapeake  was  mortally  wounded,  and  as  he  was 
carried  below  cried  out,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship !"  But 
his  vessel  had  entered  the  combat  when  in  no  proper 
fighting  trim  and  was  forced  to  yield. 

Other  Ocean  Battles. — The  Essex,  under  Captain  For- 


278  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

ter,  cruised  for  a  whole  year  in  the  Pacific,  taking  numbers 
of  British  merchantmen.  In  March,  1814,  she  was  attacked 
by  two  British  frigates  in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso  and 
forced  to  surrender.  This  and  the  capture  of  the  Chesa 
peake  were  the  only  British  naval  successes  during  the 
war.  The  last  fight  took  place  in  February,  1815,  after  the 
war  had  ended.  The  glorious  old  Constitution,  which  had 
already  won  such  fame,  was  attacked  by  two  British  ves 
sels,  the  frigate  Cyane  and  the  sloop  Levant,  off  the  coast 
of  Madeira,  and  after  a  forty  minutes'  action  captured  them 
both. 

While  the  small  American  fleet  was  doing  this  remarkable 
service,  the  seas  were  swept  by  privateers,  which  during 
the  war  captured  more  than  a  thousand  prizes.  Many 
American  merchant  vessels  were  taken,  but  in  this  compe 
tition  the  British  were  largely  the  losers. 

Perry  on  Lake  Erie. — The  naval  battles  of  the  war  were 
not  confined  to  the  ocean.  The  control  of  Lake  Erie  be 
came  an  important  matter,  and  both  sides  prepared  to 
contest  it.  In  the  summer  of  1813  the  British  were  mas 
ters  of  the  lake,  having  on  it  a  fleet  of  six  ships  with  sixty- 
three  guns.  Captain  Oliver  Perry,  a  young  officer  who  had 
never  seen  a  naval  battle,  was  sent  to  build  a  fleet  and 
fight  the  foe.  He  did  the  first  with  extraordinary  energy, 
cutting  down  forest-trees  which  in  a  few  weeks  were  con 
verted  into  ships.  With  these  and  some  other  vessels, 
nine  in  all,  armed  with  fifty-four  guns,  he  sailed  in  search 
of  the  British  fleet.  His  flag-ship  was  named  the  Lawrence, 
and  the  flag  at  the  mast-head  bore  Captain  Lawrence's 
memorable  words,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship." 

The  fleets  met  on  September  10.  A  fierce  conflict  en 
sued.  The  Lawrence  fought  two  of  the  heaviest  British 
vessels  till  it  was  badly  cut  up,  while  of  its  crew  only  eight 


THE   SECOND   WAR   WITH   GREAT   RRITAIN. 


279 


effective  men  were  left.  Then  the  indomitable  Perry  sprang 
into  a  boat  and  was  rowed  through  a  hot  British  fire  to  the 

Niagara.  With  this  new 
flag-ship  he  made  a  splendid 
charge  through  the  enemy's 
line,  firing  right  and  left  into 
their  shattered  vessels,  and 
in  fifteen  minutes  more  the 
victory  was  won. 

"  We  have  met  the  enemy 
and    they    are    ours,"    was 
Perry's  famous  despatch.    It 
roused  the  country  like  an 
electric  charge.   Enthusiasm  every 
where  ran  high. 

The  Battle  of  the  Thames. — 
Perry's  victory  saved  the  North 
west.  On  receiving  the  news  of 
it,  General  Harrison  crossed  into 

Canada,  found  the  enemy  in  retreat,  and  completely  defeated 
them  on  the  river  Thames.  Proctor,  the  British  com 
mander,  fled ;  his  men  surrendered ;  and  Tecumseh,  who 
led  the  Indian  auxiliaries,  was  killed.  Detroit  was  soon 
after  recovered,  and  the  war  ended  in  the  West. 

Canada  again  Invaded. — In  1814  another  attempt  to 
invade  Canada  was  made,  by  way  of  the  Niagara  River. 
By  this  time  the  army  had  been  reorganized,  the  troops 
disciplined,  and  more  able  commanders  chosen.  General 
Winfield  Scott  won  a  brilliant  victory  at  Chippewa  on  July 
5.  On  July  25  another  victory  was  won  at  Lundy's  Lane.1 
The  invasion,  however,  yielded  no  useful  results. 


BATTLE-FIELDS  ON  THE  NIAGARA. 


1  A  battery,  situated  on  a  height,  was  the  key  to  the  British  position. 
"Can  you  take  that  battery?"  asked  General  Brown,  calling  Colonel 


280  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF   THE   REPUBLIC. 

McDonough  on  Lake  Champlain. — Later  in  the  season, 
the  British  attempted  an  invasion  of  New  York,  following 
the  often-tried  line  of  Lake  Champlain.  It  proved  a  disas 
trous  failure,  though  General  Prevost  had  under  him  twelve 
thousand  of  Wellington's  veteran  soldiers.  The  British  fleet 
on  the  lake  attacked  the  American  squadron  under  McDon- 
ough  (September  11),  and  was  so  badly  beaten  as  to  be 
nearly  destroyed.  Prevost,  learning  of  this  defeat,  fled  in 
such  haste  as  to  leave  his  sick  and  wounded  and  most  of 
his  stores  behind. 

The  War  on  the  Coast. — With  this  important  American 
victory  the  war  in  the  North  ended,  but  meanwhile  a  cam 
paign  of  plunder  was  being  made  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 
Napoleon  had  been  beaten  and  banished  to  Elba,  and 
Europe  once  more  was  at  peace.  This  left  England  free 
for  the  war  in  America,  and  a  large  fleet  was  sent  across 
the  sea,  enough  to  blockade  the  whole  coast  from  Maine 
to  Florida.1  Thousands  of  veterans  from  the  European 
war  were  also  sent. 

It  was  proposed  to  invade  the  country  on  the  north,  the 
east,  and  the  south.  Prevost's  invasion  from  the  north,  as 
we  have  seen,  signally  failed.  On  the  east  troops  were 
landed  and  a  number  of  towns  were  plundered.  Stoning- 
ton,  Connecticut,  was  bombarded.  Part  of  the  coast  of 
Maine  was  seized  and  held  till  the  end  of  the  war. 

Washing-ton  Captured. — In  July,  1814,  a  strong  British 
fleet,  conveying  an  army  four  thousand  five  hundred 

Miller  to  his  side.  "  I'll  try,  sir,"  was  the  modest  answer.  Miller  won 
the  battery  and  held  the  position  against  three  desperate  charges  of  the 
foe.  His  answer  has  become  famous. 

1  Commerce  was  so  completely  ruined  that  the  lamps  in  the  light 
houses  were  no  longer  lighted.  They  had  become  of  use  only  to  the 
enemy. 


THE   SECOND   WAR   WITH   GREAT   RRITAIN. 


281 


strong,  appeared  in  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  troops  were 
landed  near  the  mouth  of  the  Patuxent  River  and  marched 
toward  the  national  capital.  Their  coming  had  been  a  sur 
prise,  and  the  hasty  steps  taken  to  resist  them  proved  use 
less.  About  six  thousand  men  were  gathered,  nearly  all  un 


trained  militia.  They  met 
the  foe  at  Bladensburg, 
near  Washington,  but 
were  soon  put  to  flight, 
and  the  enemy  marched 
on  to  the  capital  (August 
24). 

Here  shameful  and  in 
glorious  work  was  done,  from  which  the  British  nation 
gained  no  renown.    The  Capitol,  the  President's  house,  and 
most  of  the  public  buildings  were  burned  and  all  the  records 


NORTHERN  BATTLE-FIELDS  OF  THE  WAR  OF 
1812-15. 


282  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF  THE   REPUBLIC. 

of  the  government  destroyed.  This  vandalism  had  been 
ordered  by  the  British  government,  on  the  plea  that  the 
Parliament  House  at  York,  Canada,  had  been  burned  by  the 
Americans.  But  this  was  the  act  of  a  general,  not  of  a 
government. 

Baltimore  Attacked. — On  leaving  Washington,  Admiral 
Cockburn  sailed  to  Baltimore.  Here  the  fleet  attacked  Fort 
McHenry,  while  the  army  marched  by  land  against  the 
city.  But  there  was  no  surprise  here  as  at  Washington ; 
Baltimore  was  prepared,  and  the  assault  ended  in  failure.1 

The  Creek  War. — The  war  in  the  South  was  begun  by  the 
Creek  Indians,  who,  incited  by  Tecumseh,  in  1813  attacked 
and  took  Fort  Mimms,  massacring  the  garrison  and  all  the 
women  and  children  in  the  fort.  The  people  of  that  region 
gathered  in  revengeful  haste,  and  under  General  Andrew 
Jackson  routed  the  Indians  in  several  severe  engagements. 
The  last  battle  took  place  at  Tohopeka,  or  Great  Horseshoe, 
where  the  Indians  had  fortified  themselves,  and  where  they 
were  completely  defeated.  About  six  hundred  warriors 
were  slain,  and  the  rest  were  glad  to  make  peace. 

The  British  at  New  Orleans. — The  final  effort  of  Great 
Britain  was  made  against  New  Orleans.  General  Paken- 
ham,  an  able  soldier,  landed  with  a  force  of  twelve  thousand 
veterans  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  near  that  city  in  December, 
1814.  It  was  defended  by  about  half  as  many  men,  under 
General  Jackson,  the  hero  of  the  Creek  War.  In  great  haste 

1  Francis  S.  Key,  who  had  been  sent  to  the  British  fleet  to  negotiate 
an  exchange  of  prisoners,  was  detained,  and  spent  there  the  night  of 
the  attack  on  the  fort.  When  morning  came  he  looked  eagerly  for  the 
national  flag,  and  saw  that  it  still  waved  over  the  walls  of  the  fort.  In 
the  inspiration  of  the  occasion  he  wrote  the  "  Star-Spangled  Banner,1' 
a  song  which  immediately  became  popular,  and  which  still  continues 
a  leading  national  ode. 


THE   SECOND   WAR   WITH    GREAT   BRITAIN. 


283 


Jackson  threw  up  intrenchments,  his  lines  extending  from 
the  river  to  the  swamps.     Cotton  bales  were  used  to  some 
extent  in  his  works,  while 
the  British  used  hogsheads 
of  sugar  for  the  same  pur 
pose.      But   as    bombard 
ment  soon  set  the  cotton 
in  flames,  Jackson  replaced 
the  bales  with  a  bank  of 
earth  and  river  mud. 

Pakenham's  Assault. — 
On  January  8,  1815, 


Pakenham 
assault.     It 
fatal  error, 
men      were 


tried    an 

proved  a 

Jackson's 

largely 


sharp-shooters,      and 
the     British     fell 


NEW  ORLEANS  AND  THE  CREEK  WAR. 


n 


multitudes  before  their  unerring  fire.  In  twenty-five  min 
utes  the  assailing  army  hastily  withdrew,  leaving  two  thou 
sand  six  hundred  killed  and  wounded  on  the  field.  Pak 
enham  was  among  the  dead.  Of  Jackson's  men  only  eight 
were  killed  and  thirteen  wounded.  Rarely  has  so  great  a 
victory  been  won  with  so  little  loss.  It  brought  to  a  sudden 
end  the  invasion  of  Louisiana.  The  entire  British  plan  of 
campaign  had  failed. 

Peace  Declared.  —  As  events  proved,  the  slaughter  at  New 
Orleans  was  useless.  A  treaty  of  peace  had  already  been 
signed.  British  and  American  commissioners  had  been 
debating  on  the  question  of  peace  since  August,  and  a  treaty 
was  signed  on  Christmas  eve,  1814,  at  Ghent.  But  those 
were  not  days  of  ocean  cables  and  land  telegraphs,  and  the 
war  went  on  for  several  weeks  after  peace  had  been  made. 


284  THE   EARLY   PERIOD   OF   THE   REPUBLIC. 

The  treaty  left  affairs  much  as  they  were  before  the  war. 
Great  Britain  did  not  give  up  the  right  of  impressment.  But 
no  fear  was  felt  that  she  would  attempt  to  seize  American 
seamen  again. 

War  with  Algiers. — Peace  with  Great  Britain  did  not 
quite  end  the  era  of  war.  The  Dey  of  Algiers  had  taken 
the  opportunity  to  capture  some  American  vessels.  Com 
modore  Decatur  was  sent  in  1815  to  punish  him  for  his  acts 
of  piracy.  The  capture  of  two  of  his  ships  sufficed.  He 
was  glad  to  sign  a  treaty  to  give  up  all  captives  and  cease  all 
future  attacks  on  American  commerce.  Tunis  and  Tripoli 
did  the  same,  and  all  trouble  with  the  Barbary  States  was 
brought  to  an  end. 

The  Hartford  Convention. — In  1814  a  convention  of 
delegates  from  the  New  England  States,  representing  the 
element  of  the  people  opposed  to  the  war,  met  in  secret 
convention  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  and  passed  resolutions 
recommending  seven  amendments  to  the  Constitution.  It 
was  widely  believed  that  these  delegates  were  plotting 
secession,  and  they  not  only  brought  political  ruin  to  them 
selves  but  to  their  political  following.  They  were  all  Fed 
eralists,  and  their  action  was  the  death-blow  of  the  Federal 
party.  Just  what  took  place  in  the  convention,  however, 
was  never  well  known. 

A  National  Bank. — The  war  left  the  finances  of  the 
country  in  a  serious  state.  Eighty  million  dollars  had  been 
spent,  and  the  national  debt  had  increased  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  million  dollars.  Trade  was  nearly  ruined, 
and  only  paper  money  was  in  use.  The  old  National  Bank 
of  the  United  States  had  been  closed  in  1811,  its  charter 
having  expired.  A  new  one  was  chartered  in  1816  for 
twenty  years,  with  the  hope  that  it  would  aid  in  over 
coming  the  financial  depression.  The  capital  was  to  be 


THE   SECOND   WAR   WITH   GREAT   BRITAIN.          285 

thirty-five  million  dollars,  to  which  the  government  contrib 
uted  largely.  The  bank  did  good  service  in  aiding  to  restore 
the  lost  prosperity  of  the  country. 

New  States. — During  the  Madison  administration  two 
newT  States  were  admitted  to  the  Union,  Louisiana  in  1812. 
and  Indiana  in  1816. 

Election  of  Monroe. — In  1812,  Madison  had  been  re- 
elected,  with  Elbridge  Gerry  for  Vice-President.  In  the 
Presidential  contest  of  1816  the  Democratic-Republican 
party  nominated  James  Monroe,  with  Daniel  D.  Tompkins 
for  Vice-President.  The  Federalists  nominated  Rufus  King 
for  President,  but  made  no  nomination  for  Vice-President. 
The  party  was  virtually  dead.  Monroe  received  an  over 
whelming  majority.  From  that  time  forward  the  Federal 
party  ceased  to  exist. 


PART   VII. 
THIRTY    YEARS    OF    PEACE   AND    PROGRESS* 


\ 


t,  flUonroe's  Hfcministratton* 

A  One-Party  Bra.  —  Monroe's  two  administrations  were 
the  only  ones  in  the  history  of  the  country  in  whi.ch  party 
spirit  did  not  prevail.  The  decline  of  the 
Federal  party  had  left  the  Democratic- 
Republican  party  supreme.  In  his  first 
election  he  received  one  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  out  of  two  hundred  and 
twenty-one  electoral  votes.  In  his  sec 
ond  election,  in  1820,  no  other  candidate 
was  nominated.  His  election  would  have 
been  unanimous  had  not  one  elector 
voted  against  him,  on  the  ground  that  he 
was  not  willing  that  any  President  but 
Washington  should  have  a  unanimous  vote.1 

The   President's   Journey.  —  Like   Washington,  Monroe 


JAMES  MONROE. 


1  James  Monroe,  like  all  the  Presidents  before  him  except  Adams, 
was  a  native  of  Virginia.  He  was  born  there  in  1758,  entered  the  Rev 
olutionary  army  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  served  with  distinction  in 
the  battles  of  Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth.  He  after 
ward  studied  law,  and  served  at  various  periods  as  minister  to  France, 
Spain,  and  England.  As  a  special  envoy  to  France  in  1803  he  secured 
the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  He  was  not  possessed  of  brilliant  powers, 
but  was  a  plain,  honest  man,  whose  leading  aim  was  the  good  of  his 
country.  He  was  the  third  President  to  die  on  July  4  (1831). 
286 


MONROE'S   ADMINISTRATION.  287 

made  a  journey  through  some  of  the  States  in  the  first  year 
of  his  term.  It  was  a  period  of  slow  travel,  and  it  took  him 
three  months  to  traverse  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States. 
He  hoped  by  this  journey  to  heal  party  feeling.  New  Eng 
land  had  opposed  the  war,  and  had  suffered  from  it.  The 
bitter  feeling  was  not  yet  appeased,  but  Monroe's  appearance 
among  the  people  as  a  veteran  of  the  Revolution,  dressed 
in  the  military  costume  of  the  days  that "  tried  men's  souls," 
roused  general  enthusiasm.  Revolutionary  soldiers  gath 
ered  to  welcome  him.  The  war-worn  battle-flags  of  '76 
were  displayed.  He  spoke  of  the  worth  of  the  Union,  of  the 
need  of  sympathy  between  North  and  South,  and  men  of  all 
political  views  applauded  his  words.  For  the  time  party 
lines  seemed  to  vanish.  Every  one  declared  that  the  coun 
try  had  entered  on  an  "  Era  of  Good  Feeling." 

In  1819,  Monroe  made  a  second  tour,  this  time  in  the 
South.  The  effect  was  as  good  as  before,  and  for  the  only 
time  in  its  history  the  people  of  this  country  appeared  to  be 
united  in  sentiment  and  opinion. 

A  Commercial  Invasion. — The  close  of  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  had  produced  one  marked  variation  in  the 
condition  of  American  industries.  The  attacks  on  commerce 
before  the  war  and  the  prevention  of  importation  during 
that  period  had  led  to  a  considerable  development  of  man 
ufactures  in  this  country,  particularly  in  the  production  of 
cotton  and  woollen  goods.  New  England,  wiiose  carrying 
trade  was  ruined,  had  employed  her  capital  largely  in  this 
direction. 

But  the  close  of  the  war  made  a  radical  change.  British 
merchant  vessels  succeeded  British  war  ships,  and  a  mer 
cantile  invasion  of  the  country  was  made,  the  products  of 
England's  looms  being  brought  here  in  vast  quantities,  and 
sold  at  prices  with  which  the  small  and  poorly  equipped 


288          THIRTY   YEARS   OF   PEACE   AND   PROGRESS. 

American  factories  could  not  compete.  There  was  good 
reason  to  believe  that  the  manufacturers  of  England  were 
selling  their  goods  below  cost  so  as  to  break  down  Ameri 
can  competition  and  force  this  country  to  depend  on  them 
for  a  supply. 

The  Tariff  Question. — Petitions  poured  in  upon  Congress 
asking  for  a  protective  tariff,1  and  in  1816  such  a  tariff  was 
enacted,  increasing  the  duties  on  cotton  and  woollen  goods. 
It  failed  to  produce  the  benefit  expected.  Large  importa 
tions  of  foreign  goods  were  still  made.  In  1824  a  new  tariff 
law  was  passed,  further  increasing  the  duties  on  cotton  and 
woollen  goods  and  adding  to  the  duties  on  various  other 
articles. 

The  tariff  question  now  first  became  an  important  political 
consideration.2  The  tariff  of  1816  was  supported  by  many 


1  A  tariff  is  a  tax  laid  on  foreign  goods  imported  into  any  country. 
The  money  thus  obtained  is  used  for  the  expenses  of  the  government. 
A  tariff  "  for  revenue  only"  is  one  in  which  only  these  expenses  are  con 
sidered.     A  "  protective  tariff  "  is  one  intended  to  check  importation, 
and  thus  to  encourage  home  manufactures.     Free  trade  is  a  system  in 
which  no  duties  are  charged,  and  money  for  government  expenses  is 
obtained  by  taxes  on  home  products  and  incomes.     The  advocates  of 
free  trade  and  revenue  tariff  claim  that  it  is  the  true  policy  for  each 
country  to  produce  only  that  for  which  it  is  best  fitted  by  nature,  and 
that  protection  benefits  the  few  at  the  expense  of  the  many.     The  ad 
vocates  of  protective  tariff  claim  that  protection  is  necessary  for  the 
proper  development  of  manufacturing  industries.     Opposite  views  on 
these  subjects  have  long  been  held,  and  have  formed  the  main  point 
of  difference  between  the  two  leading  political  parties. 

2  The  first  tariff  bill  passed  in  this  country  was  signed  by  Washing 
ton  on  July  4, 1789.    Hamilton  advocated  a  tariff  as  a  revenue  measure, 
but  also  considered  the  importance  of  protection.     Protection  was  a 
feature  in  subsequent  tariffs,  but  revenue  continued  the  principal  con 
sideration  until  1816.     In  several  later  tariff  bills  protection  was  the 
leading  purpose. 


MONROE'S  ADMINISTRATION.  289 

Southerners  and  opposed  by  many  of  the  merchants  of  New 
England,  on  the  plea  that  it  would  injure  their  commercial 
interests.  By  1824  a  change  had  taken  place  ;  manufactur 
ing  had  largely  developed  in  New  England,  and  protection 
was  demanded,  while  the  agriculturists  of  the  South  advo 
cated  free  trade  as  best  suited  to  their  interests. 

Trouble  with  the  Florida  Indians. — Spain  held  Florida, 
but  did  not  hold  it  strongly.  The  Indians  of  that  country 
made  many  raids  into  Georgia  and  Alabama.  They  were 
aided  by  runaway  slaves  and  other  lawless  characters. 
Complaints  were  made,  but  Spain  could  not  or  would  not 
keep  order.  As  a  result  a  condition  of  border  warfare 
arose. 

Jackson  in  Florida. — General  Jackson  was  sent  in  1818 
to  suppress  this  trouble.  He  was  given  permission  to  pur 
sue  enemies  across  the  border,  but  he  was  not  to  attack 
any  Spanish  post  without  orders  from  Washington.  But 
Jackson  was  not  the  man  to  wait  for  orders.  He  raised  a 
force  of  four  thousand  men,  many  of  them  Creek  Indians, 
pursued  the  Seminole  Indians  into  Florida,  drove  them 
from  point  to  point,  and  captured  without  orders  several 
Spanish  forts  and  towns — among  them  Pensacola — on  the 
plea  that  their  commanders  were  aiding  the  enemy.  Two 
British  traders,  who  were  accused  of  supplying  the  Indians 
with  arms  and  ammunition,  were  arrested,  tried,  and  exe 
cuted,  though  the  evidence  against  them  was  doubtful. 

The  Purchase  of  Florida. — Thus  the  headstrong  Jackson 
managed  in  a  short  time  to  bring  the  country  into  hostile 
relations  with  both  Spain  and  Great  Britain.  Spain  strongly 
resented  the  invasion.  But  it  soon  became  evident  that 
Florida  was  likely  to  prove  a  troublesome  possession,  and 
in  1819  the  Spanish  government  agreed  to  sell  that  prov 
ince  to  the  United  States  for  the  sum  of  five  million  dollars. 

19 


290  THIRTY   YEARS   OF   PEACE   AND   PROGRESS. 

By  the  treaty  Spain  gave  up  all  claim  to  the  country  lying 
west  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  and  north  of  the  42d  parallel 
of  latitude.  From  this  region  have  been  made  the  States  of 
Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine. — Spain  was  having  trouble  with 
her  other  colonies.  After  1810  one  after  another  of  them 
broke  into  rebellion,  which  she  was  unable  to  suppress, 
and  it  looked  as  if  some  of  the  other  nations  of  Europe 
might  come  to  her  aid.  If  they  did,  they  might  seize  upon 
some  of  these  colonies  themselves. 

This  was  a  state  of  affairs  by  no  means  agreeable  to  the 
United  States.  For  a  number  of  years  the  question  was 
debated  as  to  whether  this  country  should  recognize  and  aid 
the  revolutionists.  In  1823,  President  Monroe  took  a  de 
cided  step.  In  a  message  to  Congress  he  declared  that  the 
United  States  considered  the  American  continents  to  be  no 
longer  open  to  colonization  from  Europe,  and  that  this  coun 
try  would  resent  any  attempt  of  a  European  power  to  in 
terfere  with  an  independent  American  government.1 

Its  Effect. — Monroe's  words  carried  weight.  Europe  was 
coming  to  recognize  the  strength  of  the  United  States,  and 
had  no  desire  to  go  to  war  with  this  country.  There  was  no 
further  thought  of  interference  with  the  Central  and  South 
American  states.  In  the  next  year  Russia,  in  a  treaty, 

1  Monroe  declared,  "  That  the  American  continents,  by  the  free  and 
independent  condition  which  they  have  assumed  and  maintain,  are 
henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by 
any  European  powers."  He  further  declared  that  any  attempt  by  a 
European  power  to  oppress  or  control  an  independent  American  nation 
would  be  regarded  as  "  the  manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  disposition 
toward  the  United  States."  This,  known  as  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine," 
has  at  various  times  since  attracted  much  attention,  and  became  very 
prominent  in  1895-96  in  consequence  of  what  were  claimed  to  be 
English  aggressions  upon  the  territory  of  Venezuela. 


MONROE'S   ADMINISTRATION.  291 

abandoned  all  claim  to  the  Pacific  coast  region  south  of  the 
latitude  of  54°  40'. 

New  States  Admitted. — Several  new  States  were  ad 
mitted  during  the  Monroe  administration.  These  included 
two  formed  out  of  the  territory  which  Georgia  and  South 
Carolina  had  ceded  to  the  United  States, — Mississippi,  ad 
mitted  in  1817,  and  Alabama,  in  1819.  Illinois,  formed 
out  of  the  Northwestern  Territory,  was  admitted  in  1818. 
Maine  and  Missouri  soon  afterward  applied  for  admission. 

The  Missouri  Compromise. — An  important  question  now 
arose.     In  1819  there  were  eleven  slave  and  eleven  free 
States.     This   gave   the   North  and  the 
South  an   equal   representation    in    the 
Senate.     The  South  was  anxious  to  pre 
serve  that  equality.     The  admission  of 
Maine  would    give  a  preponderance  to 
the  free  States.     It  was  therefore  desired 
by    Southern    members    that    Missouri 
should   be   admitted   as  a   slave   State. 
This  was   opposed   by  many   Northern         "~ ''  v. 
members,  who  strongly  objected  to  the          HENRY  CLAY> 
extension  of  slavery. 

The  debate  over  this  question  was  long  and  bitter.  It 
was  ended  in  1820  by  a  bill  introduced  by  Jesse  B.  Thomas, 
of  Illinois,  and  strongly  advocated  by  Henry  Clay,1  the 

1  Henry  Clay  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1777.  He  entered  the  Ken 
tucky  legislature  in  1803,  and  was  elected  in  1806  to  the  House  of 
Representatives,  whose  Speaker  he  became  in  1811.  He  was  at  that 
time  the  leader  of  the  war  party,  and  was  in  later  years  distinguished 
as  the  advocate  of  several  useful  compromise  measures.  He  served 
as  Secretary  of  State  under  President  John  Quincy  Adams,  became  a 
member  of  the  Senate,  and  was  three  times  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  Presidency.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  Whig  party  on  its 


292          THIRTY  YEARS  OF  PEACE  AND  PROGRESS. 

Speaker  of  the  House.  This  bill  proposed  that  Missouri 
should  be  admitted  as  a  slave  State,  but  that  slavery  should 
forever  be  prohibited  in  any  other  part  of  the  Western  ter 
ritory  of  the  United  States  that  lay  north  of  the  parallel  of 
36°  30'.  Such  was  the  character  of  the  famous  Missouri 
Compromise.  It  divided  the  country  into  a  free  North  and 
a  slave-holding  South,  and  for  the  next  thirty  years  re 
moved  this  question  out  of  politics.  Maine,  whose  admis 
sion  had  been  resisted,  became  a  State  March  15,  1820. 
Missouri  was  admitted  August  10,  1821. 

Public  Improvements. — The  Cumberland  Road,  a  na 
tional  highway  to  the  West  begun  in  1806,  had  been 
extended  from  Cumberland,  Maryland,  to  Wheeling.  It 
was  now  proposed  to  carry  it  to  the  Mississippi.  It  was 
gradually  extended  into  Ohio,  stretching  farther  and  farther 
west,  until  in  the  end  it  was  carried  to  the  Mississippi  by 
aid  of  the  State  governments.  It  was  a  broad,  smooth,  and 
solid  highway,  over  which  moved  westward  a  seemingly 
endless  train  of  emigrant  wagons.  Other  public  improve 
ments  were  •  advocated,  but  none  were  carried  out,  the 
President  thinking  that  he  had  no  power  under  the  Con 
stitution  to  spend  the  public  money  for  such  purposes. 

The  Brie  Canal. — Such  public  improvements  were  quite 
within  the  power  of  the  States,  and  in  1817  a  highly  impor 
tant  one  was  begun  in  New  York,  that  known  as  the  Erie 
Canal.  Its  construction  was  mainly  due  to  the  unyielding 
perseverance  of  Governor  De  Witt  Clinton.  "  Clinton's 
Ditch"  it  was  called  in  derision  by  the  opponents  of  the 
project. 

The  Erie  Canal  was  intended  to  connect  the  waters  of 


formation,  and  died  in  1852.     Clay  was  the  most  distinguished  orator 
of  the  South. 


MONROE'S   ADMINISTRATION. 


293 


the  Hudson  River  with  those  of  Lake  Erie.  Its  length  was 
three  hundred  and  sixty-three  miles,  and  its  construction 
an  immense  task, 
employing  an  army 
of  laborers  for  eight 
years,  during  which 
they  cut  down  for 
ests,  excavated  rocks, 
carried  the  canal  by 
locks  up  hill-sides  and 
by  aqueducts  across 
rivers.  Begun  July 
4,  1817,  it  was  com 
pleted  in  1825,  and 
has  ever  since  been 
in  active  use.  It  has 
proved  of  immense  advantage  to  New  York  City  and  State.1 
Lafayette's  Visit  to  America. — In  1824,  near  the  close 
of  Monroe's  administration,  Lafayette,  the  most  distinguished 
foreign  hero  of  the  Revolution,  visited  this  country  at  the 
request  of  Congress  and  on  the  invitation  of  the  President. 


LOCK  ON  THE  ERIE  CANAL. 


1  When  the  water  was  let  into  the  canal,  in  the  autumn  of  1825,  the 
news  was  conveyed  from  Buffalo  to  New  York  by  a  row  of  cannon, 
about  five  miles  apart,  and  fired  in  quick  succession.  That  was  one 
form  of  the  telegraph  of  those  days.  Governor  Clinton  travelled  by  the 
canal  from  Buffalo  to  Albany,  and  by  the  Hudson  River  to  New  York, 
bringing  a  keg  of  water  from  Lake  Erie  which  was  poured  with 
solemn  ceremony  into  the  harbor  of  New  York.  It  indicated  the  mar 
riage  of  the  lake  with  the  ocean.  Before  the  canal  was  built  it  cost 
ten  dollars  and  took  three  weeks  to  transport  a  barrel  of  flour  from 
Buffalo  to  Albany.  By  the  canal  it  could  be  sent  through  in  a  week, 
at  a  cost  of  thirty  cents.  To-day  a  constant  procession  of  grain  boats 
traverses  the  canal,  day  and  night,  from  west  to  east,  and  one  of  boats 
laden  with  merchandise  from  east  to  west. 


294          THIRTY  YEARS  OF   PEACE  AND   PROGRESS. 

No  man  ever  had  a  more  enthusiastic  reception.  Forty 
years  and  more  had  passed  since  he  left  the  United  States. 
He  was  now  nearly  seventy,  one  of 
the  last  surviving  friends  and  aides  of 
Washington,  and  the  whole  people 
rose  to  do  him  honor. 

He  spent  more  than  a  year  travel 
ling  through  the  nation,  visiting  every 
State,  and  being  everywhere  greeted 
with  affection  and  enthusiasm.     Some 
of  the  old  soldiers  who  had  served 
under  him  in  the  Revolution  fainted 
with  emotion  on  grasping  his  hand. 
On  June  17,  1825,  he  took  part  in  laying  the  corner-stone 
of  the  Bunker  Hill  monument.     It  was  just  fifty  years  after 
the  battle. 

Lafayette  had  spent  much  of  his  fortune  in  the  American 
cause,  and  in  recompense  Congress  voted  him  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars  and  twenty-four  thousand  acres  of  land. 

He  was  invited  to  a  dinner  at  the  White  House,  given  by 
President  Adams,  and  having  as  guests  the  ex-Presidents 
Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Monroe,  all  old  friends  of  Lafayette. 
His  return  to  France  was  made  in  a  new  naval  vessel, 
named  in  his  honor  the  Brandywine,  after  the  battle  in 
which  he  had  taken  a  prominent  part. 

Changes  Seen  by  Lafayette. — To  one  who  had  not  seen 
this  country  for  forty  years  the  changes  must  have  seemed 
stupendous.  The  population  had  grown  from  less  than 
three  millions  to  about  eleven  millions.  The  thirteen  States 
had  expanded  to  twenty-four.  The  settlements,  which  had 
long  clung  to  the  coast  region,  now  stretched  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  What  he  had  known  as  the  colonies  in  rebel 
lion  had  now  become  one  of  the  greatest  nations  on  the 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION.  L295 

earth.  The  progress  in  agriculture,  commerce,  and  manu 
facture  had  been  immense.  The  flag  of  the  United  States 
was  seen  in  all  seas,  and  Europe  was  clothed  with  her 
cotton  and  fed  with  her  grain.  Peace,  prosperity,  and  free 
dom  ruled,  and  the  country  had  fully  started  on  its  great 
career. 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1824. — In  the  Presidential 
contest  of  1824  there  were  four  candidates  in  the  field.  But 
there  was  still  only  one  well-defined  party,  and  these  candi 
dates  were  nominated  by  their  political  friends.  When  the 
votes  were  counted  it  appeared  that  Andrew  Jackson  had 
received  ninety-nine,  John  Quincy  Adams  eighty-four,  Wil 
liam  H.  Crawford  forty-one,  and  Henry  Clay  thirty-seven 
electoral  votes.  Jackson  was  evidently  the  choice  of  the 
people.  But  as  he  had  not  a  majority  of  the  whole  electoral 
vote,  the  election  was,  by  the  Constitution,  thrown  into  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  a  choice  made  from  the  first 
three.  Clay's  friends  supported  Adams,  and  he  was  elected. 
John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina,  was  chosen  Vice- 
President. 


2.  Jobn  (Quincp  Hfcams's  Efcmintetration, 

Adams  Unpopular. — Adams1  was  not  a  popular  Pres 
ident,  though  he  proved  a  useful  and  an  able  one.  He  was 

1  John  Quincy  Adams,  son  of  John  Adams,  the  second  President, 
was  born  jn  Massachusetts,  1767.  He  served  as  United  States  Senator 
from  Massachusetts  from  1803  to  1809,  and  afterward  held  important 
government  positions,  among  them  those  of  minister  to  England  and 
Secretary  of  State.  Two  years  after  leaving  the  Presidential  chair  he 
was  sent  to  Congress  as  a  Representative,  and  retained  this  position 
until  his  death  in  1848.  While  in  Congress  he  was  highly  honored 
and  respected,  and  showed  such  ability  in  debate  that  he  was  called 
"the  old  man  eloquent." 


296          THIRTY   YEARS   OF   PEACE   AND   PROGRESS. 

retiring  and  austere  in  manner,  and  made  few  political 
friends,  while  his  opponents,  Clay  and  Jackson,  had  both  a 
body  of  devoted  followers.  It  was  widely 
believed  also  that  Jackson  had  been  un 
justly  deprived  of  the  seat,  for  which  he 
had  the  largest  popular  and  electoral  vote. 
Preparations  were,  therefore,  at  once  made 
to  support  him  in  the  next  campaign. 

Party  Divisions. — The  "Era  of  Good 
^•f^  Feeling"  was  at  an  end.  The  President 
JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS,  made  Henry  Clay  Secretary  of  State,  and 
was  at  once  charged  with  repaying  him 
for  the  votes  of  his  friends.  This  personal  division  be 
tween  the  supporters  of  Adams  and  Clay  and  those  of 
Jackson  and  Crawford  was  followed  by  a  political  one,  the 
administration  party  favoring  a  protective  tariff  and  public 
improvements  at  the  expense  of  the  government,  while  its 
opponents  favored  free  trade,  or  tariff  for  revenue  only,  and 
opposed  public  works  at  government  expense,  believing  that 
each  State  should  pay  for  its  own  improvements. 

The  New  Parties. — This  difference  of  opinion  grew  into 
a  party  distinction.  The  administration  party  became  known 
as  National  Republicans,  because  they  wished  to  increase 
the  powers  of  the  national  government.  The  opposition 
party,  which  had  long  beefTTmown  as  the  Democratic- 
Republican,  dropped  the  latter  part  of  its  name,  and  became 
known  as  the  Democratic  party.  It  advocated  loj&  tariff 
and  State  rights.  These  two  parties,  in  effect,  still  exist, 
though  the  National  Republican  did  not  long  retain  that 
name. 

Higher  Tariff. — The  protection  sentiments  of  the  admin 
istration  were  embodied  in  1828  in  a  new  tariff,  higher  than 
that  of  1824.  Very  high  duties  were  laid  on  wool  and 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION.  297 

hemp,  and  increased  duties  on  various  other  articles.  It 
was  not  generally  satisfactory,  but  Congress  adopted  it.  Its 
enemies  called  it  the  "  tariff  of  abominations."  It  was 
bitterly  opposed  in  the  South,  and  John  C.  Calhoun  sug 
gested  that  South  Carolina  should  declare  the  act  "  null 
and  void"  within  that  State.  This  was  the  first  step  toward 
nullification  of  the  tariff,  which  was  attempted  four  years 
afterward. 

Internal  Improvements. — The  second  feature  of  the  ad 
ministration  policy,  that  of  "  internal  improvements,"  was 
strongly  advocated  by  the  President.  He  believed  that  Con 
gress  had  full  right  under  the  Constitution  to  order  public 
works,  and  suggested  that  public  roads,  canals,  and  fortifi 
cations  should  be  built,  a  national  university  established, 
national  observatories  erected,  and  scientific  enterprises 
undertaken.  Congress  passed  several  such  bills,  but  oppo 
sition  to  them  was  strong,  and  years  passed  before  the 
views  of  Adams  gained  extended  public  support. 

Death  of  Adams  and  Jefferson. — On  July  4,  1826,  two 
ex-Presidents,  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  died. 
By  a  singular  and  interesting  coincidence  their  death  took 
place  on  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence,  which  one  of  them  had  written  and  the  other 
aided  to  prepare.  John  Adams  had  the  special  gratification 
of  living  to  see  his  son  President  of  the  United  States. 

Removal  of  the  Creek  Indians. — An  important  act  of 
the  Adams  administration  was  the  removal  of  the  Creek 
Indians  from  their  old  domain.  The  Federal  government 
had  agreed  in  1802  to  remove  these  Indians  from  Georgia, 
and  in  1819  that  State  called  on  the  government  to  fulfil  its 
agreement.  Steps  were  taken,  and  in  1825  some  of  the 
Creek  chiefs,  acting  on  their  own  authority,  agreed  to  cede 
the  tribal  lands  and  accept  new  ones  beyond  the  Mississippi. 


298          THIRTY  YEARS  OF  PEACE  AND   PROGRESS. 

This  was  a  trick  which  the  tribe  repudiated,  and  the  chiefs 
who  made  the  treaty  were  put  to  death.  Georgia  tried  to 
take  possession,  and  for  a  time  an  Indian  war  was  threat 
ened.  In  1826  a  new  treaty  was  made,  in  which  the  Creeks 
agreed  to  removal,  parting  with  most  of  their  land,  and 
accepting  new  lands  in  the  West.  The  Cherokees,  another 
tribe  of  Georgia  Indians,  were  removed  at  a  later  date. 

Anti-Masonic  Party. — A  new  political  party  arose  in  an 
unusual  manner.  William  Morgan,  a  member  of  the  society 
of  Freemasons,  published  a  book  in  1826  in  which  he  pro 
fessed  to  reveal  the  secrets  of  the  society.  He  disappeared, 
and  it  was  believed  by  many  that  the  Masons  had  mur 
dered  him.  The  feeling  against  the  society  became  so  strong 
that  it  gave  rise  to  a  new  political  party  called  the  Anti- 
Masonic,  its  purpose  being  to  exclude  all  Freemasons  from 
office.  It  nominated  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in  1832, 
but  soon  after  died  out. 

The  Temperance  Cause. — As  has  been  already  stated, 
the  drinking  of  intoxicating  liquors  was  very  common  in 
colonial  times.  It  continued  so  in  the  early  days  of  the 
States,  drunkenness  being  a  serious  evil,  which  affected 
even  the  highest  classes  of  society.  Temperance  societies 
had  been  formed,  but  had  done  little  good.  The  first  suc 
cessful  temperance  society  was  established  in  1826,  and  in 
the  years  that  followed  the  temperance  cause  won  thousands 
of  adherents,  and  did  remarkable  work  in  repressing  the 
mania  for  strong  drink.1 

1  Total  abstinence  was  not  required  by  the  early  temperance  socie 
ties.  All  they  demanded  was  abstinence  from  distilled  spirits, — whis 
key,  brandy,  and  rum.  In  1840  the  Washingtonian  Temperance  Society 
was  formed,  which  required  total  abstinence.  It  is  said  that  this  move 
ment  reformed  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  drunkards.  In  1846 
the  "  Maine  Law,"  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating 


JACKSON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  299 

The  Election  of  1828.— In  the  next  Presidential  election 
there  were  two  candidates  nominated.  The  two  parties  had 
now  become  well  defined,  Adams  being  the  candidate  of  the 
National  Republican,  Jackson  of  the  Democratic.  In  the 
election  the  sentiment  of  the  people  was  strongly  expressed. 
Jackson  was  a  popular  military  hero,  a  fact  which  greatly 
strengthened  his  party.  He  was  elected  by  a  majority  of 
ninety-five  electoral  votes.  John  C.  Calhoun  was  elected 
Vice-President. 

7   3.  Jacfeson's  Hfcmintetratioru 

Character  of  Jackson. — Hitherto  the  Presidential  chair 
had  been  filled  by  men  trained  in  statesmanship.  Now  a 
new  feeling  arose.  Men  said  that  there  was  danger  of  an 
aristocracy,  and  supported  Jackson  as  a  man  of  the  people. 
It  was  this  sentiment,  and  his  military  reputation,  much 
more  than  any  political  reason,  that  made  him  President. 

Andrew  Jackson l  was  obstinate  in  disposition.  He  took 
his  beliefs  strongly,  and,  being  always  sure  he  was  right, 

liquors  in  the  State  of  Maine,  was  passed.  At  later  dates  other  States 
enacted  similar  laws.  The  result  of  the  temperance  movement  has 
been  that  drunkenness  has  greatly  decreased  in  the  United  States,  and 
has  quite  lost  the  respectability  which  it  once  possessed. 

1  Andrew  Jackson  was  born  in  one  of  the  Carolinas  (it  is  not  sure 
which)  in  1767.  He  was  an  active,  athletic  lad,  not  given  to  books, 
and  passing  a  life  of  adventure.  At  fourteen  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  British,  and  was  wounded  on  the  head  by  an  officer  whose  boots 
he  had  refused  to  clean.  After  the  war  he  engaged  in  various  pursuits, 
finally  became  a  lawyer,  and  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1796.  He  dis 
tinguished  himself  greatly  in  the  war  with  the  Creek  Indians  and  at 
the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  and  gained  popular  fame  by  his  dealings 
with  the  Spanish  in  Florida.  After  his  retirement  from  the  Presidency 
he  lived  quietly  at  the  Hermitage,  his  home  near  Nashville,  where  he 
died  in  1845. 


300          THIRTY   YEARS   OF   PEACE   AND   PROGRESS. 

could  not  often  be  moved  by  argument.  He  was  a  firm 
friend  and  a  bitter  enemy,  and  had  the  dangerous  weakness 
of  looking  upon  his  personal  enemies 
as  enemies  of  the  country.  He  had  an 
unyielding  will,  as  his  Cabinet  officers 
found,  their  influence  in  the  affairs  of 
government  being  very  slight.  His  one 
good  quality  was  honesty.  He  meant 
well  by  the  country  in  all  he  did,  and 
attacked  what  he  thought  corruption 
without  a  care  for  who  might  be  hurt. 
ANDREW  JACKSON.  Rotation  in  Office.— Jackson  began 

his  official  career  by  inaugurating  a  new 
and  unwise  system  of  office-holding,  that  known  as  "  rota 
tion  in  office.1'  It  was  growing  to  be  considered  undemo 
cratic  for  public  offices  to  be  held  long  by  the  same  per 
son.  The  offices  belonged  to  the  people,  men  said,  and 
should  be  enjoyed  by  as  many  of  the  people  as  possible. 

A  different  view  had  before  prevailed,  the  former  Presi 
dents  making  few  removals.  Jefferson,  who  made  the  most, 
soon  stopped  doing  so,  and  afterward  refused  to  remove  any 
honest,  faithful,  and  capable  office-holder,  whatever  his  polit 
ical  opinions.  From  1789  to  1829  less  than  a  hundred  re 
movals  were  made,  and  some  of  these  were  for  theft.  Jack 
son  turned  out  fully  two  thousand,  and  filled  their  places 
with  men  of  his  own  party. 

The  Spoils  System. — This  system  came  to  be  known  as 
the  "  Spoils  System,"  from  a  remark  of  Senator  Marcy  in 
1834,  who  spoke  of  politics  as  conducted  on  the  principle 
that  "  to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils.1'  It  proved  to  be 
highly  injurious  to  the  public  service  of  the  country,  capable 
and  experienced  men  being  removed  from  office  every  four 
years  to  make  way  for  untried  aspirants,  whose  only  claim 


JACKSON'S   ADMINISTRATION. 


301 


V. 


JOHN  C.  CALHOUN. 


was  that  they  had  voted  and  worked  for  the  party,  and  who 

were  often  incapable  of  properly  performing  their  official 

duties.     This  vicious   system  is    now 

being  rapidly  set   aside   by  the   Civil 

Service  Reform  movement. 

Nullification. — While  Jackson  was 

doing  evil  in  this  direction  he  was  doing 

good  in  another.     The  tariff  of  1828 

was  extremely  unpopular  in  the  South, 

as  it  added  considerably  to  the  cost  of 

goods  which  were  received  in  exchange 

for  cotton.     John  C.  Calhoun  declared 

that  any  State  had  the  right  to  decide 

if  such  an  act  was  constitutional,  and,  if  not,  to  declare  it 

null  and  void.  This  would  be  to  nullify  an  act  of  Congress, 
and  the  doctrine  was  called  "  nullifi 
cation."  In  1830  it  gave  rise  to 
a  remarkable  debate  in  Congress. 
Senator  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina, 
supported  the  doctrine  in  a  powerful 
speech.  He  was  answered  by  Daniel 
Webster,1  Senator  from  Massachu 
setts,  in  one  of  the  greatest  orations 
that  has  ever  been  delivered,  and 
which  closed  with  the  striking  re 
mark,  "  Liberty  and  Union,  one  and 

inseparable,  now  and  forever."     In  a  later  reply  to  Cal- 


DANIEL  WEBSTER. 


1  Daniel  Webster,  the  great  American  orator  and  statesman,  was  born 
in  New  Hampshire  in  1782.  He  studied  law,  entered  politics,  and  was 
sent  to  Congress  in  1813.  He  rose  rapidly  in  estimation  as  an  orator. 
His  career  in  Congress  was  a  most  brilliant  one,  but  he  failed  to  gain 
ihe  nomination  for  President,  though  his  name  was  presented  in  1844, 


302          THIRTY  YEARS   OF  PEACE   AND   PROGRESS. 

houn  l  he  declared  that  u  there  can  be  no  secession  without 
revolution." 

How  Jackson  Dealt  with  the  Nullifiers. — During  the 
year  1832  a  new  tariff  bill  was  passed.  It  considerably  de 
creased  the  average  rate  of  duty,  but  the  principle  of  pro 
tection  was  maintained,  and  the  South  continued  dissatisfied. 
In  December  South  Carolina  took  positive  action.  A  State 
convention  declared  the  tariff  null  and  void,  forbade  the 
collection  of  duties  within  the  State,  and  threatened,  if 
interfered  with  in  this  action,  to  secede  from  the  Union. 

President  Jackson  believed  in  low  tariff,  but  not  in  seces 
sion.  He  at  once  issued  a  vigorous  proclamation,  saying 
that  the  Federal  laws  must  be  obeyed,  and  that  resistance 
to  them  would  not  be  permitted.  To  prove  that  he  meant 
this,  Lieutenant  Farragut  was  sent  with  a  naval  force  to 
Charleston  harbor,  and  General  Scott  was  ordered  with 
troops  to  Charleston.  Every  one  knew  that  Jackson  meant 
just  what  he  said,  and  the  duties  were  collected  in  Charles 
ton  as  usual. 

The  Compromise  Tariff.  —  Congress,  however,  made 
efforts  to  remove  the  cause  of  dispute,  and,  through  the 
efforts  of  Henry  Clay,  a  compromise  tariff  bill  was  passed. 
Under  this  there  was  to  be  a  gradual  reduction  of  duties 
until  1842,  when  a  uniform  rate  would  be  reached  sufficient 
only  for  revenue  purposes. 


1848,  and  1852.     He  lost  popularity  by  defending  the  Compromise  bill 
of  1850,  and  died  in  1852. 

1  John  C.  Calhoun  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1782,  studied  law, 
and  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1811,  where  he  gained  great  distinction  as 
an  orator.  He  served  as  Secretary  of  War  under  President  Monroe, 
and  was  elected  Vice-President  in  1824  and  again  in  1828.  He  favored 
a  protective  tariff  in  1816,  but  afterward  became  a  strong  advocate  of 
free  trade.  He  died  in  1850. 


JACKSON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  303 

A  Surplus  of  Revenue. — Just  then  the  need  of  revenue 
was  small.  The  debt  of  the  United  States  had  all  been 
paid  off,  and  a  considerable  surplus  lay  in  the  treasury. 
What  to  do  with  this  became  'a  question.  Congress  finally 
decided  to  divide  it  among  the  States,  and  twenty-eight 
million  dollars  were  thus  distributed.  Soon  afterward  the 
expenses  of  the  government  increased  and  its  revenue  de 
creased,  and  it  was  again  in  debt.  It  has  been  in  debt  ever 
since,  and  there  has  been  no  more  money  to  divide  among 
the  States. 

The  United  States  Bank  Bill  Vetoed. — We  have  de 
scribed  two  decided  actions  of  President  Jackson,  the  inau 
guration  of  "  rotation  in  office"  and  the  overthrow  of  "  nul 
lification."  A  third  remains  to  describe.  The  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  founded  first  in  1791  and  a  second  time  in 
1816,  and  chartered  for  twenty  years,  would  cease  to  exist 
in  1836  unless  its  charter  were  renewed.  It  applied  for  a 
renewal  in  1832,  four  years  in  advance,  and  Congress  passed 
a  bill  granting  the  request. 

But  Jackson  had  different  views.  The  bank  had  opposed 
him  politically,  and  made  him  its  enemy.  He  declared  that 
it  was  growing  too  powerful  and  was  becoming  dangerous 
to  the  country.  In  consequence  he  vetoed  the  bill,  and 
Congress  failed  to  pass  it  over  his  veto. 

Removal  of  the  Deposits. — The  President  did  not  con 
fine  himself  to  this.  He  was  determined  to  destroy  the 
bank,  and  in  1833  he  removed  from  its  vaults  the  govern 
ment  money,  and  distributed  this  among  certain  State 
banks.  Those  which  were  thus  favored  became  known  as 
Pet  Banks.  It  is  doubtful  if  he  had  any  right  to  do  this 
under  the  Constitution.  He  was  censured  by  the  Senate, 
but  he  held  to  his  point,  and  the  ruin  of  the  bank  was 
accomplished. 


304         THIRTY   YEARS  OF  PEACE  AND   PROGRESS. 

A  Period  of  Speculation. — Whether  Jackson  was  right 
in  believing  the  bank  to  be  dangerous  is  a  question  that  has 
never  been  settled.  That  his  mode  of  dealing  with  it  was 
dangerous  is  a  settled  question.  The  money  placed  in  the 
State  banks  was  loaned  freely  to  merchants  and  others, 
who  began  to  use  it  with  great  freedom  for  speculative 
purposes.  There  was  a  wild  movement  of  operations  in 
Western  territory.  Sections  of  government  land  were 
bought  and  laid  out  in  building  lots.  New  cities  were 
planned  to  be  built  in  a  few  months.  Men  grew  reckless 
in  their  desire  to  become  rich  suddenly,  and  buying  and 
selling  on  credit  became  the  rage.  The  result  of  this  mania 
of  speculation  came  in  the  next  administration,  and  will  be 
told  in  the  story  of  that  period. 

The  Abolition  Movement. — An  important  party  move 
ment  began  in  Jackson's  administration  which  was  to  grow 
very  prominent  in  later  years.  This  was  the  Anti-Slavery 
or  Abolition  movement.  There  had  long  been  a  strong  op 
position  to  the  extension  of  slavery,  but  this  for  the  time 
had  been  set  aside  by  the  Missouri  Compromise.  There 
now  arose  an  opposition  to  the  existence  of  slavery  in  any 
of  the  States. 

In  1831,  William  Lloyd  Garrison  started  in  Boston  a 
paper  which  he  called  The  Liberator,  in  which  he  advocated 
the  "  immediate  and  unconditional  emancipation  of  every 
slave  held  in  the  United  States."  He  soon  gained  followers, 
anti-slavery  societies  were  formed,  and  active  measures 
were  taken  to  advocate  their  opinions,  by  lectures  and 
pamphlets.  But  many  who  favored  gradual  emancipation 
opposed  Mr.  Garrison's  methods,  and  the  anti-slavery  cause 
made  slow  progress. 

The  Nat  Turner  Insurrection. — In  1831  an  insurrection 
of  slaves  occurred  in  Virginia.  It  was  led  by  a  negro 


JACKSON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  305 

named  Nat  Turner,  and  before  it  was  put  down  over  sixty 
whites,  men,  women,  and  children,  had  been  killed.  This 
event  caused  great  alarm  in  the  South,  and  helped  to 
arouse  public  feeling  in  the  North  against  the  abolition 
movement.  Anti-slavery  meetings  were  broken  up  with 
violence,  and  on  one  occasion  a  mob  dragged  Mr.  Garrison 
through  the  streets  of  Boston  with  a  rope  around  his  body. 
The  police  had  great  difficulty  in  saving  his  life. 

Indian  "Wars. — The  rapid  settlement  of  the  West  gave 
rise  in  1832  to  an  Indian  war,  as  it  had  on  several  occa 
sions  before.  The  lands  of  the  Winnebagoes  and  the  Sacs 
and  Foxes,  in  Illinois  and  Wisconsin,  were  being  overrun, 
and  a  famous  chief  named  Black  Hawk  led  the  tribes 
against  the  settlers.1  They  were  soon  put  down,  and  made 
a  treaty  by  which  they  gave  up  about  ten  million  acres. 
For  this  they  were  to  receive  yearly  supplies  and  an  annu 
ity  in  money. 

The  Cherokees  of  Georgia  and  the  Seminoles  of  Florida 
were  also  in  the  way  of  the  whites,  and  efforts  at  their 
removal  were  made.  The  Seminoles  resisted,  and  a  war 
broke  out  with  them  in  1835,  the  Indians  being  led  by  a 
celebrated  chief  named  Osceola.  This  war  lasted  nearly 
seven  years.  Osceola,  who  had  been  driven  to  war  by  bad 
treatment,  was  captured  by  treachery,  and  died  in  confine 
ment.  The  war  dragged  on  until  1842,  and  was  attended 
by  many  cruel  incidents.  In  the  end  most  of  the  Seminoles 
twere  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory. 

Removal  of  the  Cherokees. — The  Cherokees  were  taken 
to  the  same  Territory  by  force  in  1838.  They  received  a 
large  sum  for  their  lands  in  Georgia,  but  they  were  forced 
to  accept  the  treaty,  and  in  the  removal  nearly  four  thou- 

1  Abraham  Lincoln,  then  a  young  man,  took  part  in  this  war. 

20 


306 


THIRTY  YEARS   OF   PEACE   AND   PROGRESS. 


sand  of  them  perished, — about  a  fourth  of  the  whole.  This 
was  a  flagrant  instance  of  the  cruelty  with  which  the  whites 
have  treated  the  Indians. 

Chicago  Founded. — On  the  southwestern  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan  stood  a  small  fortification  named  Fort  Dearborn. 


CHICAGO  IN  1832. 

It  had  been  taken  by  the  British  in  1812.  and  in  1831  was 
surrounded  by  about  a  dozen  rude  houses.  In  1833  the 
settlement  was  named  Chicago,  from  the  Indian  name  of 
Chicago  River.  It  then  embraced  something  over  five  hun 
dred  inhabitants.  In  sixty  years  afterward  it  had  more 
than  a  million  inhabitants  and  was  one  of  the  largest  cities 
in  the  world. 

Steps  of  Progress. — Two  new  States  were  admitted 
during  Jackson's  administration, — Arkansas,  in  1836,  and 
Michigan,  in  1837.  It  was  a  period  of  great  industrial 
progress.  Railroads  had  been  introduced,  and  before  the 
end  of  Jackson's  second  term  two  thousand  miles  of  railroad 
had  been  built.  Steam  navigation  was  rapidly  extending. 
In  1836,  John  Ericsson  invented  the  screw-propeller,  which 
has  largely  taken  the  place  of  the  paddle-wheel  in  steam 
navigation.  The  McCormick  reaper  and  the  Nasmyth 


VAN   BUREN'S   ADMINISTRATION.  307 

steam-hammer  were  introduced.  Gas  was  taking  the  place 
of  oil  and  candles  in  city  houses,  water-works  were  re 
placing  wells,  and  among  the  smaller  but  highly  useful 
inventions  were  friction-matches,  which  first  became  known 
in  1829. 

Political  Changes. — In  1832,  Jackson  had  been  re-elected 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  was  still  highly  popu 
lar,  and  received  two  hundred  and  nineteen  electoral  votes, 
while  Henry  Clay,  the  National  Republican  candidate,  re 
ceived  forty-nine.  Martin  Van  Buren  was  elected  Vice- 
President.  In  1834  the  National  Republicans  began  to 
adopt  a  new  name,  calling  themselves  "Whigs."  They 
claimed  that  Jackson  was  a  kind  of  tyrant,  whom  they 
opposed  as  the  Whigs  of  the  Revolutionary  period  had 
opposed  George  III.  A  Southern  party  who  opposed  the 
President  called  themselves  "  State  Rights  Whigs." 

The  Election  of  1836. — When  the  time  for  the  next 
Presidential  election  came,  Jackson  declined  to  run  again, 
and  the  Democrats,  at  his  instigation,  nominated  Martin  Van 
Buren,  the  Vice-President.  The  Whigs  nominated  William 
Henry  Harrison,  a  soldier  of  the  war  of  1812.  The  State 
Rights  Whigs  nominated  Hugh  White.  In  the  election  the 
Democratic  party  again  triumphed,  electing  Van  Buren  by 
one  hundred  and  seventy  electoral  votes,  against  one  hun 
dred  and  twenty-four  for  the  other  candidates. 

<(     4*  IDan  3Buren's  Hfcmintetration. 

Wild-Cat  Banks. — Martin  Van  Buren l  had  not  been  long 
in  the  Presidential  chair  before  the  effects  of  the  policy  of 

1  Martin  Van  Ruren  was  born  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1782.  He 
studied  law  and  early  entered  political  life.  In  1818  he  became  a 
leader  in  the  New  York  Democracy,  was  elected  United  States  senator 


308 


THIRTY   YEARS   OF  PEACE  AND   PROGRESS. 


MARTIN  VAN  BUREN. 


his  predecessor  made  themselves  felt.  The  overthrow  of 
the  United  States  Bank  was  followed  by  the  establishment 
of  a  host  of  State  banks,  many  of 
them  without  capital,  and  issuing 
notes  which  they  were  very  unlikely 
to  redeem.  These  became  known 
as  "  wild-cat  banks."  Some  of  these 
State  banks  whose  directors  were  in 
harmony  with  Jackson's  views  re 
ceived  deposits  of  government 
money.  This  money,  as  already 
said,  soon  made  its  way  into  the 
hands  of  borrowers  and  gave  rise  to 
a  high  tide  of  speculation.  Land  at 
first,  and  afterward  almost  every 
thing,  were  speculated  in,  and  paid  for  largely  in  the  notes 
of  the  wild-cat  banks.1 

The  Panic  of  1837. — Much  of  the  land  bought  was  pur 
chased  from  the  government.  When  Jackson  found  that  it 
was  being  paid  for  largely  in  notes  that  soon  became  worth 
less,  an  order  was  issued  to  the  government  agents  to  accept 
only  gold  in  payment  for  public  lands.  This  order  precipi 
tated  a  panic. 

in  1821  and  governor  of  New  York  in  1828.  He  was  Secretary  of  State 
during  Jackson's  first  term  and  Vice-President  during  his  second.  He 
was  defeated  for  re-election  to  the  Presidency  in  1840  and  in  1848.  He 
died  in  1862. 

1  Men  grew  so  eager  in  land  speculation  that  they  purchased  freely 
of  land  they  never  had  seen  and  never  were  likely  to  see.  Town  lots 
were  bought  at  high  prices  in  the  far  backwoods,  and  the  sites  of  some 
of  the  Western  cities — which  existed  only  on  paper — were  six  feet 
under  water.  In  Dickens's  story  of  "Martin  Chuzzlewit"  he  gives  an 
amusing  description  of  one  of  these  paper  cities,  dignified  with  the 
name  of  Eden. 


VAN  BUREN'S  ADMINISTRATION.  309 

It  began  in  1837,  shortly  after  Van  Buren  took  his  seat, 
in  the  failure  of  a  large  New  Orleans  business  house.  Other 
failures  quickly  followed.  Land  was  hastily  offered  for  sale, 
but  no  one  would  buy  it.  Prices  fell  rapidly.  In  ten  days 
a  hundred  New  York  merchants  found  their  business  ruined. 
Within  two  months  the  failures  in  that  city  alone  reached 
the  sum  of  one  hundred  million  dollars. 

The  State  bank  notes  came  back  in  numbers  for  payment, 
but  there  was  no  gold  or  silver  in  the  vaults  to  redeem 
them,  and  the  banks  began  to  fail  in  all  directions.  Gold 
and  silver  vanished  from  sight,  and  the  government  was 
forced  to  pay  its  debts  in  paper  money. 

The  business  depression  that  followed  was  one  of  the 
worst  the  country  has  ever  known.  Everywhere  mills  and 
factories  stopped  and  workmen  were  thrown  out  of  em 
ployment.  The  government  was  forced  to  suspend  the 
payment  of  the  surplus  ordered  to  be  divided  among  the 
States,  and  the  fourth  instalment  of  this  was  never  paid.1 

State  Repudiation. — The  panic  brought  many  of  the 
States  into  trouble.  Large  sums  had  been  borrowed  in 
Europe  for  public  improvements,  such  as  canals  and  rail 
roads,  and  seven  of  the  States  found  it  impossible  to  pay 
the  interest  on  this  debt,  while  one  of  them,  Mississippi, 
refused  to  pay  either  interest  or  principal.  American  credit 
suffered  a  severe  shock  from  this  action. 

The  Sub-Treasury  System. — The  panic  lasted  for  a  year, 
but  several  years  passed  before  business  regained  prosperity. 

1  In  1837-38  tfiere  was  a  revolt  in  Canada  against  the  British  gov 
ernment  which  called  forth  much  sympathy  in  the  United  States. 
Meetings  were  held  and  men  and  arms  offered.  This  movement  was 
checked  by  a  proclamation  from  the  President,  and  General  Scott  was 
sent  to  the  border  to  watch  events,  an  action  which  averted  what 
might  have  led  to  a  war  with  Great  Britain. 


310          THIRTY  YEARS  OF  PEACE  AND  PROGRESS. 

One  good  result  came  from  it.  The  President  perceived 
the  danger  of  depositing  the  government  funds  in  irresponsi 
ble  banks,  and  recommended  to  Congress  the  establishment 
of  an  independent  treasury,  or  place  of  deposit  for  govern 
ment  money,  at  Washington,  with  branches,  known  as  sub- 
treasuries,  in  the  chief  cities.1 

This  system  met  with  strong  opposition.  It  was  adopted 
in  1840,  repealed  in  1841,  and  adopted  again  in  1846.  It 
has  since  remained  in  force.  It  has  the  one  serious  objection 
that  it  withdraws  large  sums  of  money  from  circulation. 
This,  in  times  of  financial  disturbance,  is  found  to  cause 
serious  trouble. 

The  Election  of  1840. — The  depression  in  business 
proved  a  severe  blow  to  the  Democratic  party.  Van  Buren 
was  renominated,  and  was  opposed  by  William  Henry 
Harrison 2  as  the  Whig  candidate.  Harrison  received  two 
hundred  and  thirty-four  electoral  votes  to  sixty  for  Van 
Buren.  There  was  an  abolition  candidate,  James  Birney, 
but  he  received  no  electoral  votes. 


1  The  United  States  treasury  is  in  the  Treasury  building  at  Wash 
ington.     There  are  sub-treasuries  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Bos 
ton,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  Raltimore,  New  Orleans,  and  San 
Francisco. 

2  Harrison  had  won  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe,  had  lived  in  a  log 
cabin  and  drunk  hard  cider.     Much  was  made  of  these  facts  in  the 
campaign.     He  was  called  the  "  Hero  of  Tippecanoe,"  hard  cider  was 
a  party  watchword,  and  log  cabins  formed  a  prominent  feature  of  the 
meetings  and  processions.     He  was  called  a  man  of  the  people,  and 
Van  Buren  an  aristocrat  with  a  silver  tea-service. 


THE   HARRISON  AND   TYLER   ADMINISTRATIONS.      311 

5*  Ube  Iftarrison  ant>  Upler  Hfcmtntstrations* 

A  Brief  Whig-  Administration. — For  forty  years,  from 
the  date  of  Jefferson's  election  in  1800  to  that  of  Harrison 
in  1840,  the  Democratic  party  had 
been  in  power.  But  though  the  party 
name  remained  the  same,  its  princi 
ples  varied.  At  one  time  it  sustained 
protection,  at  others  free  trade.  It 
was  not  until  after  1825  that  distinc 
tively  free  trade  and  protection  par 
ties  arose,  and,  though  Adams  favored 
the  latter,  the  election  of  Harrison 
was  its  first  triumph  at  the  polls. 

.  _.*  WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON. 

Its  career  at  this  time  did  not  last 

long.  President  Harrison l  lived  only  long  enough  to  select 
his  Cabinet  and  begin  his  duties.  He  died  April  4,  1841, 
having  been  just  one  month  in  office.  John  Tyler,2  the 
Vice-President,  succeeded  him  in  the  Presidential  chair. 
Though  elected  by  the  Whigs,  he  was  a  Democrat  in  polit- 

1  William  Henry  Harrison  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1773.    His  father 
was  governor  of  Virginia.     He  entered  the  army  in  1791,  took  part  in 
General  Wayne's  campaign  against  the  Indians,  and  occupied  several 
prominent  positions  in  the  Northwest.     His  military  service  during 
Madison's  administration  has  been  described  under  that  heading.     He 
was  a  Presidential  candidate  in  1836  and  was  elected  in  1840,  but  the 
pressure  of  office-seekers  proved  too  much  for  his  strength,  and  he 
died  in  a  month. 

2  John  Tyler,  who  succeeded  Harrison  as  President,  was  born  in  Vir 
ginia  in  1790.    He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  State  Rights  party, 
and  though  elected  Vice-President  by  the  Whigs  retained  the  free-trade 
principles  of  his  party.     He  was  the  first  Vice-President  who  succeeded 
to  the  Presidency.     In  1861  he  presided  over  the  peace  convention  at 
Washington.     He  afterward  joined  the  Confederacy,  and  died  in  1862 
in  Richmond,  while  9,  member  of  the  Confederate  Congress. 


312         THIRTY  YEARS  OF  PEACE  AND  PROGRESS. 

ical  opinion,  and  the  Whig  administration  had  but  a  month's 
actual  existence. 

Political  Conflict. — Harrison  had  called  an  extra  session 
of  Congress  to  consider  the  financial  condition  of  the  coun 
try,  and  the  Whig  majority  quickly  passed  a  bill  for  the 
establishment  of  a  new  Bank  of  the  United  States.  To 
their  dismay  they  found  they  had  an  opponent  in  the  Pres 
idential  chair.  Tyler  vetoed  the  bill.  Another  bill  was 
passed  to  meet  the  President's  objec 
tions,  bjut  he  vetoed  this  also. 

A  quarrel  now  arose  between  the 
Whig  party,  led  by  Henry  Clay,  and 
the  President.  The  Whigs  called  him 
a  renegade.  He  replied  that  he  had 
never  endorsed  their  principles.  This 
was  true,  but  it  did  not  satisfy  the 
Whigs,  and  all  the  Cabinet  resigned 
except  Webster,  who  was  negotiating 
a  treaty  with  Great  Britain.  During 
the  remainder  of  Tyler's  administration  an  open  conflict 
existed  between  him  and  the  Congressional  majority.  In 
1843  the  Democrats  gained  a  majority  in  Congress,  and  the 
short  term  of  Whig  supremacy  came  to  an  end. 

The  Rhode  Island  Contest.  —  During  these  political 
troubles  in  Washington,  a  serious  contest  arose  in  Rhode 
Island.  That  State  still  conducted  its  government  under 
the  old  charter  granted  in  1662  by  Charles  II,  by  which 
only  the  oldest  sons  of  voters  had  full  right  of  suffrage,  all 
other  voters  needing  to  possess  a  certain  amount  of  prop 
erty.  The  effect  of  this  was  that  about  two-thirds  of  the 
people  were  deprived  of  the  right  to  vote.  The  representa 
tion  in  the  assembly  was  also  very  unfair. 

A  new  constitution  was  demanded,  and  a  convention  of 


THE   HARRISON   AND  TYLER   ADMINISTRATIONS.      313 

the  non-voters  prepared  one  in  1841,  and  submitted  it  to 
the  votes  of  all  the  people.  It  was  carried.  A  constitution 
prepared  by  the  party  in  power,  and  submitted  to  the  legal 
voters,  was  rejected. 

The  Dorr  Rebellion. — Both  parties  now  elected  officials. 
The  reform  party  made  Thomas  W.  Dorr  governor,  and  he 
proceeded  to  enter  upon  the  duties  of  the  office  in  May, 
1842.  The  other  party  also  elected  a  governor,  denounced 
Dorr  and  his  party,  called  out  the  militia,  and  appealed  to 
the  President.  Dorr  attempted  to  seize  the  State  arsenal, 
but  found  it  guarded  by  militia.  President  Tyler  sent  United 
States  troops  to  Fort  Adams,  at  Newport,  and  Dorr,  finding 
that  his  supporters  were  deserting  him,  fled  from  the  State. 

A  New  Constitution. — The  reform  movement,  however, 
had  its  effect.  A  new  convention  was  called,  in  which  non- 
voters  were  represented,  and  a  third  and  more  liberal  con 
stitution  was  drawn  up,  in  which  most  of  the  changes 
desired  were  granted.  It  went  into  effect  in  May,  1843. 

In  1844,  Dorr  returned  to  the  State,  was  tried  for  treason, 
based  on  his  attempt  to  seize  the  State  arsenal,  and  was 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was  pardoned, 
however,  in  the  following  year.  Since  then  the  constitu 
tion  of  Rhode  Island  has  been  amended,  and  the  people 
now  have  fuller  suffrage  privileges  than  the  Dorr  party 
demanded. 

1  The  Anti-Renters. — About  the  same  time  a  difficulty 
coming  from  colonial  customs  arose  in  New  York.  Some 
of  the  lands  of  the  old  Dutch  patroons  were  still  held  by 
their  descendants,  who  claimed  payment  of  the  old  annual 
charges  in  produce.  The  rent  demanded  was  very  light,1 

1  The  rent  consisted  of  "  a  few  bushels  of  wheat,  three  or  four  fat 
fowls,  and  a  day's  work  with  horse  and  wagon,  per  year.1'  It  was  the 
last  relic  of  feudalism  in  America. 


314          THIRTY  YEARS  OF   PEACE   AND   PROGRESS. 

but  was  resisted  as  illegal.  About  1840  many  of  the  ten 
ants  refused  to  pay  rent.  Riots  broke  out,  the  anti-renters 
disguising  themselves  as  Indians,  tarring  and  feathering 
those  who  paid  rents,  and  even  killing  some  of  the  officers 
who  served  warrants  on  them. 

It  became  necessary  to  call  out  the  militia  to  put  down 
the  rioters,  and  the  affair  became  known  as  the  "  Helder- 
berg  War."  The  dispute  made  its  way  into  politics,  and  a 
political  faction  known  as  the  "  Anti-Renters"  arose  in  New 
York.  Gradually  the  trouble  ended  by  the  tenants  buying 
the  rights  of  the  proprietors,  and  the  last  vestige  of  patroon 
rule  died  away. 

Treaty  with  Great  Britain.— While  these  political  diffi 
culties  were  being  settled  at  home,  others  were  being  at 
tended  to  abroad.  Daniel  Webster,  who  had  been  chosen 
as  Secretary  of  State  by  Harrison,  remained  in  Tyler's  Cab 
inet  while  negotiating  a  treaty  with  Lord  Ashburton,  the 
representative  of  the  British  government.  A  question  re 
garding  the  boundary-line  between  Maine  and  Canada  had 
remained  unsettled.  In  the  new  treaty  the  boundary  be 
tween  the  two  countries  was  definitely  fixed  from  the  At 
lantic  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Other  questions  were  considered,  one  being  that  of  the 
"  right  of  search,"  which  had  given  rise  to  the  war  of  1812. 
It  was  not  settled,  but  Webster  declared  that  sailors  in 
American  ships  would  find  protection  in  the  flag  that  cov 
ered  them.  This  was  giving  Great  Rritain  notice  that  war 
would  follow  any  future  interference  with  American  sea 
men.  There  was  also  an  extradition  clause  in  the  treaty ; 
that  is,  one  providing  for  the  return  of  criminals  who  had 
fled  from  one  country  to  the  other. 

The  Oregon  Boundary. — A  further  boundary  question, 
which  was  settled  somewhat  later,  may  be  spoken  of  here. 


THE   HARRISON   AND  TYLER   ADMINISTRATIONS.      315 

The  Oregon  country  was  originally  claimed  by  Spain,  Great 
Britain,  and  the  United  States.  Spain  ceded  her  claim  to 
the  United  States,  which  country  also  gained  a  claim  from 
the  discovery  of  the  Columbia  River  by  Captain  Gray  in 
1792,  the  Lewis  and  Clark  exploration  of  1805-6,  and  the 
fur-trading  settlement  of  Astoria  in  1811.  Great  Britain 
also  claimed  exploration  and  settlement,  based  on  the  oper 
ations  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  of  fur-traders,  which 
had  gained  possession  of  the  Astor  Fur  Company's  settle 
ment  at  Astoria. 

The  country  in  dispute  extended  from  the  Mexican  prov 
ince  of  California  to  the  Russian  province  of  Alaska.  By 
1832  migration  began  to  make  its  way  across  the  mountains 
into  Oregon,  and  it  became  necessary  to  settle  the  question 
of  ownership.1  This  question  grew  prominent  near  the  end 
of  the  Tyler  administration,  the  American  claim  being  for 
the  whole  region  to  the  parallel  of  54°  40',  the  southern 
boundary  of  Alaska.  The  political  war-cry  was,  "  Fifty- 
four  forty  or  fight,"  signifying  that  this  country  would  fight 
for  Oregon  up  to  that  boundary.  At  length,  in  1846,  a 
treaty  was  made  which  divided  the  disputed  region  at  the 
forty-ninth  parallel,  which  already  formed  the  boundary 

1  The  gaining  of  Oregon  has  been  ascribed  to  Dr.  Marcus  Whitman, 
a  missionary  physician  among  the  Indians  of  the  Columbia  region. 
Finding  that  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  was  making  efforts  to  win  the 
country  for  Great  Britain  by  bringing  settlers  thither,  Whitman  made 
a  winter's  journey  on  horseback  across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  suffer 
ing  severely  on  his  way  and  encountering  many  perils,  his  purpose 
being  to  induce  the  government  to  claim  this  territory.  This  story  of 
Whitman's  service  to  Oregon  seems  to  be  very  doubtful,  in  the  light 
of  recent  investigation.  It  now  appears  that  he  went  east  on  mis 
sionary  business  alone,  and  took  a  minor  part  in  the  subsequent  im 
migration  to  Oregon.  The  records  show  that  the  United  States  had 
long  before  claimed  this  region. 


316          THIRTY   YEARS  OF   PEACE  AND   PROGRESS. 

east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  northern  portion  be 
came  British  Columbia ;  the  southern,  Oregon, — now  com 
prising  the  States  of  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho. 

The  Insurrection  in  Texas. — Still  another  important 
question  of  foreign  relations  came  up  in  the  Tyler  adminis 
tration.  When  the  United  States  purchased  Florida,  the 
western  boundary  of  Louisiana  was  fixed  at  the  Sabine 
River,  beyond  which  lay  the  Spanish  province  of  Texas. 
Many  settlers  from  the  Southern  States  made  their  way, 
with  their  slaves,  into  Texas,  and  when  Mexico  abolished 
slavery,  in  1824,  these  settlers  retained  their  slaves.  The 
United  States  sought  to  purchase  Texas  in  1827  and  1829, 
but  Mexico  declined  to  sell. 

By  1836  the  Americans  in  Texas  greatly  exceeded  the 
Mexicans  in  number,  and,  being  greatly  dissatisfied  with  the 
character  of  the  government,  broke  into  open  revolt.  The 
Mexicans  attempted  to  conquer  the  insurgents,  and  a  des 
perate  war  began,  General  Sam  Houston  leading  the  re 
volting  forces.  In  1836  a  severe  battle  took  place  at  San 
Jacinto  with  the  Mexican  army  under  Santa  Anna.  The 
Texans  were  greatly  outnumbered,  but  gained  a  complete 
victory.  Santa  Anna,  who  was  military  dictator  of  Mexico, 
was  taken  prisoner  and  forced  to  acknowledge  the  inde 
pendence  of  Texas.  Mexico  refused  to  be  bound  by  this 
action,  though  it  made  no  effort  to  reconquer  the  country. 

The  Annexation  of  Texas. — The  Texans,  having  estab 
lished  a  republic  of  their  own,  applied  in  1837  for  admission 
into  the  United  States.  This  question  remained  open  for 
years,  the  North  opposing  it,  the  South  favoring  it.  Many 
politicians  wished  to  open  new  territory  to  slavery,  while 
speculators  who  held  large  tracts  of  land  in  Texas  hoped 
for  a  great  advance  in  value  under  United  States  rule. 

This  question  came  up  prominently  in  the  Presidential 


THE   HARRISON  AND  TYLER   ADMINISTRATIONS.      317 

election  year  of  1844,  the  Democrats  nominating  and  elect 
ing  James  K.  Polk,  who  was  in  favor  of  annexation.  This 
result  settled  the  question.  The  people  had  expressed 
their  will,  and  both  Houses  of  Congress,  in  the  last  hours 
'of  Tyler's  administration,  passed  a  bill  in  favor  of  admitting 
Texas,  which  was  signed  by  the  President.  Texas  accepted 
the  offer  July  4,  1845,  and  was  formally  admitted  as  a 
State  to  the  Union  in  December  of  that  year.  Florida  had 
been  admitted  on  the  last  day  of  President  Tyler's  term, 
March  3,  1845. 

The  Mormons. — In  1830,  Joseph  Smith,  of  New  York, 
published  a  work  entitled  the  "  Book  of  Mormon,"  pro 
fessing  to  contain  a  new  revelation  which  he  had  received 
in  a  miraculous  manner.  He  soon  gained  followers,  with 
whom  he  went  to  Ohio,  then  to  Missouri,  and  finally  to 
Illinois.  Here  a  tract  of  land  was  bought,  a  charter  ob 
tained  from  the  legislature,  and  a  new  city,  which  was 
named  Nauvoo,  was  begun  on  the  banks  of  the  Missis 
sippi. 

In  1843,  Smith  professed  to  have  another  revelation,  and, 
declaring  that  every  true  Mormon  marriage  would  last 
forever,  he  encouraged  his  followers  to  marry  as  many 
wives  as  they  chose.  By  that  time  there  were  about 
fifteen  thousand  people  in  Nauvoo.  The  polygamy  revela 
tion  soon  made  trouble.  Smith  was  arrested  for  an  act  of 
violence,  and  a  mob,  furious  at  his  practice  of  polygamy, 
broke  into  the  prison  and  killed  him  and  his  brother. 

The  Mormon  Emigration. — This  was  in  1844.  Brigham 
Young,  a  man  of  marked  ability,  now  became  leader  of  the 
Mormons.  The  opposition  growing  very  great,  he  deter 
mined  to  lead  his  followers  to  a  place  in  the  far  West 
where  they  would  be  free  from  oppression  and  able  to  live 
as  they  thought  right  and  proper.  The  migration  began  in 


318          THIRTY  YEARS  OF  PEACE  AND  PROGRESS. 

1846.  In  1847  they  reached  the  region  now  known  as 
Utah,  and  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake. 
The  region  was  barren  and  desolate,  and  it  was  predicted 
that  the  Mormons  would  starve.  But  Young  had  canals 
dug  to  bring  water  from  the  mountains,  and  soon  had  the 
country  so  well  irrigated  that  it  bore  abundant  crops. 
There  is  no  more  prolific  part  of  the  country  now  than  the 
vicinity  of  Salt  Lake  City,  and  the  population  has  grown 
large. 

The  Telegraph  and  Anaesthesia. — There  were  two  very 
important  discoveries  made  in  the  period  now  under  con 
sideration.  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  after  years  of  experiment 
with  the  electric  telegraph,  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  grant 
from  Congress  for  putting  up  a  telegraph  line  between  Bal 
timore  and  Washington.  This  was  completed  in  1844,  and 
on  May  24  there  was  sent  over  the  wire  the  following 
significant  message  :  "  What  hath  God  wrought !" 

Another  discovery,  of  the  greatest  importance  to  mankind, 
was  made  by  Dr.  William  T.  G.  Morton,  of  Boston.  This 
was  the  discovery  of  anaesthesia,  or  the  causing  of  artificial 
sleep,  by  breathing  the  vapor  of  ether.  Before  that  time  all 
surgical  operations  had  been  attended  with  great  pain.  By 
this  process  patients  could  be  rendered  insensible  to  pain 
and  the  most  delicate  operations  be  performed  without  suf 
fering.  The  discovery  was  first  made  known  in  1846,  and 
its  fiftieth  anniversary  was  celebrated  in  1896. 

Emigration. — Emigration  to  the  United  States  had  now 
become  great.  Regular  lines  of  steamers  ran  from  Boston 
and  New  York  to  Liverpool,  and  people  from  abroad  began 
to  pour  into  the  country  at  the  rate  of  over  three  thousand 
weekly.  Between  1840  and  1850  nearly  two  million  new 
settlers  came, — twice  as  many  as  had  arrived  in  forty  years 
before. 


THE  HARRISON  AND  TYLER  ADMINISTRATIONS.      319 

The  Election  of  1844. — The  election  of  James  K.  Polk 
to  the  Presidency  by  the  Democratic  party,  as  above  men 
tioned,  was  due  to  the  action  of  his  Whig  opponent,  Henry 
Clay.  Clay  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas,  the  question 
on  which  the  election  turned,  but  for  fear  of  losing  Southern 
votes  he  failed  to  express  his  true  sentiments.  As  a  con 
sequence,  he  lost  the  State  of  New  York  by  a  small  ma 
jority,  and  with  it  the  election.1 

A  Prominent  Question. — The  election  of  the  Democratic 
candidate,  in  a  contest  whose  main  issue  was  the  annexa 
tion  of  Texas,  produced  momentous  results.  With  it  was 
reopened  the  slavery  question,  which  had  been  for  years 
settled  by  the  Missouri  Compromise,  but  which  was  now  to 
remain  the  most  prominent  political  question  until  it  was 
finally  disposed  of  by  the  result  of  the  Civil  War. 

•  l  A  closely  similar  result  appeared  in  1884,  forty  years  later,  in  the 
Elaine-Cleveland  contest.  In  consequence  of  injudicious  remarks  by 
an  adherent  of  Elaine  he  lost  the  State  of  New  York  by  a  small  ma 
jority,  and  with  it  lost  the  election. 


PART    VIII. 
THE    SLAVERY   CONTEST. 


I*  polfe's1  Hfcminfstratfon* 

Abolitionism. — The  subject  of  slavery  had  not  been  al 
lowed  to  sleep  in  Congress.     John  Quincy  Adams,  who  was 
a  member  of  the  House  from  1831  to   1848,  kept  up  its 
discussion,  much  to  the  annoyance  of  Southern  members. 
The  party  favoring  abolition  was  on 
the  increase  in   the  North,  and   the 
feeling  of  irritation  was   growing  in 
Congress.     As  yet  the  slave  and  free 
States  were  nearly  equal  in  numbers ; 
but   the   Missouri    Compromise    pre 
vented   the    formation   of  any   more 
slave  States  out  of  the  existing  terri 
tory  of  the  United  States,  while  there 
JAMES  K.  POLK/          was  abundant  room  for  free  States. 
For  this   reason    the   annexation   of 
Texas  was  particularly  desired  in  the  South.     It  was  pro 
vided  that,  if  its  people  consented,  Texas  might  be  divided 

1  James  Knox  Polk  was  born  in  Tennessee  in  1795.  He  became 
governor  of  Tennessee  in  1839,  after  fourteen  years'  service  in  Con 
gress,  during  which  he  was  Speaker  of  the  House  for  four  years.  He 
was  the  first  instance  of  what  is  known  as  a  "  dark  horse"  in  a  Presi 
dential  nomination ;  that  is,  a  man  of  no  prominence  as  a  candidate 
who  is  nominated  as  a  compromise  between  opposing  interests.  He 
was  a  man  of  excellent  private  character,  but  a  strong  partisan  in 
political  opinion.  He  died  shortly  after  the  end  of  his  term  of  office. 
320 


FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION. 


321 


322  THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

into  four  States,  but  no  movement  to  do  this  has  ever 
been  taken,  and  Texas  was  the  last  slave  State  admitted 
to  the  Union. 

The  Boundary  of  Texas. — In  admitting  Texas  the  United 
States  had  opened  the  way  to  a  serious  trouble.  Mexico 
had  never  acknowledged  the  independence  of  its  lost  prov 
ince,  though  it  had  taken  no  steps  to  recover  it.  And  an 
important  boundary  question  existed.  Texas  claimed  that 
her  western  boundary  was  the  Rio  Grande  River.  Mexico 
held  that  the  Nueces  River  was  the  true  boundary.  Between 
these  two  rivers  lay  a  wide  tract  of  land  which  both  countries 
claimed.  The  question  of  its  ownership  led  to  war. 

The  Disputed  Territory  Occupied. — President  Polk  lost 
no  time  in  taking  decisive  steps.  General  Zachary  Taylor 
was  ordered,  in  the  summer  of  1845,  to  Corpus  Christi,  on 
the  Nueces,  and  in  the  spring  of  1846  was  directed  to  pro 
ceed  to  the  Rio  Grande.  The  Mexicans  claimed  that  Taylor 
had  invaded  their  country,  ordered  him  to  retire,  and  on  his 
refusal  sent  their  own  troops  across  the  river. 

Fighting  Begins.— On  April  24,  1846,  a  fight  took  place 
and  blood  was  shed.  As  soon  as  news  of  this  skirmish 
reached  Washington,  the  President  sent  a  message  to  Con 
gress,  saying  that  "  Mexico  has  passed  the  boundary  of  the 
United  States,  and  shed  American  blood  upon  American 
soil.  .  .  .  War  exists,  notwithstanding  all  our  efforts  to 
avoid  it." 

Declaration  of  War. — This  message  roused  opposition 
in  Congress  from  Northern  members.  Abraham  Lincoln, 
who  was  then  a  member,  plainly  asked  if  special  efforts  had 
not  been  taken  to  provoke  a  war.  Congress,  however,  re 
sponded  favorably  to  the  President's  message,  declared  that 
war  existed  u  by  the  act  of  Mexico,"  and  called  for  fifty  thou 
sand  volunteers. 


FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION.  323 

Taylor's  Advance. — War  was  declared  on  May  13,  1846. 
Several  days  before — on  May  8  and  9 — severe  conflicts  had 
taken  place  at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  within 
the  disputed  territory.  The  Mexicans  were  defeated  and 
retreated  across  the  Rio  Grande.  Taylor  followed  them  and 
took  possession  of  the  town  of  Matamoras. 

Plans  of  Campaign. — The  War  Department  planned  an 
invasion  of  Mexico  in  four  quarters.  General  Taylor  was 
to  penetrate  Northern  Mexico  from  his  position  on  the  Rio 
Grande ;  General  Winfield  Scott  was  to  advance  upon  the 
capital  by  way  of  Vera  Cruz  ;  General  Stephen  W.  Kearny 
was  to  invade  New  Mexico ;  California  was  to  be  attacked 
by  a  naval  expedition,  a  fleet  having  already  been  sent  to 
the  Pacific  coast. 

Taylor's  Successes.  —  General  Taylor,  having  waited 
until  September  for  reinforcements,  advanced  on  the  5th  of 
that  month,  and  on  the  9th  reached  the  strongly  fortified 
town  of  Monterey.  This  was  deemed  almost  impregnable, 
on  account  of  the  mountains  and  ravines  which  surrounded 
it,  but  it  was  taken  after  a  fight  of  four  days,  in  which  the 
Americans  made  their  way  through  the  walls  and  over  the 
roofs  of  the  houses.  The  city  surrendered  on  the  24th. 

Battle  of  Buena  Vista. — In  the  succeeding  months  Tay 
lor's  force  was  much  reduced,  many  of  his  men  being  with 
drawn  to  reinforce  General  Scott.  Santa  Anna,  the  Mexican 
general,  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity,  and  marched 
upon  him  with  a  force  of  twenty  thousand  men,  four  times 
his  number.  Taylor  was  stationed  at  Buena  Vista,  a  nar 
row  mountain  pass  between  hills  and  a  ravine,  where  he 
was  attacked  on  February  23,  1847.  Taylor  had  the  ad 
vantage  of  position,  and  held  his  ground  so  well  that  the 
Mexicans  were  repulsed  and  retreated  with  serious  loss. 
This  ended  the  war  in  that  section  of  the  country. 


324  THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

New  Mexico  and  California.  —  Meanwhile,  General 
Kearny  had  occupied  the  province  of  New  Mexico.  In  June, 
1846,  he  left  Fort  Leavenworth,  marched  a  thousand  miles 
through  a  hostile  country  to  Santa  Fe,  and  from  there  set 
out  for  California.  He  was  too  late  for  the  latter  country. 
It  was  already  occupied  by  Americans.  Colonel  Doniphon, 
whom  Kearny  sent  south,  defeated  the  Mexicans  at  Chi 
huahua,  and  thence  made  a  long  march  to  join  General 
Wool  at  Saltillo. 

Captain  John  C.  Fremont  had  been  sent  several  years 
before  on  an  exploring  expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
He  reached  California  in  1844,  and  in  the  winter  of  1845- 
46  was  engaged  in  surveying  a  route  to  Oregon.  Word 
came  to  him  that  the  Mexican  commandant  proposed  to 
expel  the  American  settlers  from  California,  and  he  hurried 
to  their  rescue,  though  not  aware  that  the  countries  were  at 
war.  Several  conflicts  took  place,  and  by  the  aid  of  the 
fleet,  and  of  General  Kearny,  who  joined  him  in  the  last 
battle,  the  whole  country  was  conquered. 

General  Scott's  Campaign. — The 
most  important  campaign  of  the  war 
was  intrusted  to  General  Scott,  the 
hero  of  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane 
in  1814.  His  plan  was  to  land  at  Vera 
Cruz  and  march  thence  to  the  City  of 
Mexico.  Landing  his  army  on  the 
coast  near  Vera  Cruz,  he  attacked 
that  city,  which  yielded  March  27, 

WlNFIELD  SCOTT. 

1847,  after  a  four  days  bombardment. 
Thence  he  set  out  on  a  two  hundred  miles'  march  to  the 
Mexican  capital,  defeating  the  enemy  at  Cerro  Gordo  and 
taking  the  important  city  of  Puebla.     Scott,  on  approach 
ing  the  city  of  Mexico,  had  about  eleven  thousand  men. 


FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION. 


325 


He  found  the  route  strongly  fortified  and  guarded  by 
thirty  thousand  men,  yet  he  pushed  on  almost  unchecked. 
The  battles  of  Contreras  and  Churubusco  were  fought  and 
won,  and  the  city  was  approached. 

The  War  Ends. — After  a  period  spent  in  fruitless  negoti 
ations,  the  army  moved  again  on  September  8.  One  by 
one  the  defences  surrounding  the  city  were  taken.  On 
September  13  the  most  formidable  of  them  all,  the  strong 
hill  fortress  of  Chapultepec,  was  taken  by  storm.  With  this 


ASSAULT  ON  CHAPULTEPEC. 

reverse  the  defence  ended,  the  army  marching  next  day  into 
the  city,  and  hoisting  the  stars  and  stripes  over  the  ancient 
palace  known  as  the  "  Halls  of  the  Montezumas."  The 
war  was  at  an  end.  Throughout  its  whole  course  the 
Americans  had  not  been  once  defeated.  In  Scott's  army 
were  several  men  destined  to  play  a  great  part  in  the  Civil 
War,  among  them  Ulysses  S.  Grant  and  Robert  E.  Lee. 

Result  of  the  War. — A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  Feb 
ruary  2,  1848,  at  the  village  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo.     It  was 


326  THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

highly  advantageous  to  the  United  States.  Mexico  gave  up 
her  claims  upon  Texas,  and  sold  to  the  United  States  the 
two  provinces  of  New  Mexico  and  California,  then  occupied 
by  American  troops,  for  the  sum  of  fifteen  million  dollars ; 
this  country  assuming,  in  addition,  debts  due  from  Mexico 
to  United  States  citizens  amounting  to  about  three  million 
dollars.  In  1853,  to  settle  a  dispute  about  the  boundary, 
this  country  paid  Mexico  ten  million  dollars  for  a  tract  south 
of  New  Mexico  of  forty-five  thousand  five  hundred  and 
thirty-five  square  miles  in  extent.  The  latter  treaty  was 
negotiated  by  James  Gadsden,  and  the  tract  has  since  been 
known  as  the  Gadsden  Purchase.  In  all  more  than  five 
hundred  and  ninety  thousand  square  miles  were  added  to 
the  territory  of  the  United  States  as  a  result  of  the  war. 
Including  Texas,  the  additions  of  territory  were  more  than 
nine  hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand  square  miles. 

The  Wilmot  Proviso. — Conquest  in  the  war  with  Mexico 
was  fully  expected  to  be  followed  by  the  acquisition  of  ter 
ritory.  Whether  this  territory  should  be  open  to  the  exten 
sion  of  slavery  became  an  important  question.  Two  new 
States  were  admitted  during  the  Polk  administration,  Iowa 
in  1846,  and  Wisconsin  in  1848.  This  made  the  number 
of  free  and  slave  States  equal.  But  the  South  knew  that 
this  equality  could  not  long  be  maintained,  and  though  the 
new  territory  was  not  acquired  until  1848,  an  appropriation 
was  asked  for  its  purchase  early  in  the  war.  This  alarmed 
the  anti-slavery  members  of  Congress,  who  feared  it  would 
be  opened  to  slavery,  and  in  1846,  David  Wilmot,  a  Demo 
cratic  member  from  Pennsylvania,  offered  an  amendment 
to  the  appropriation  bill,  providing  that  slavery  should  be 
prohibited  in  the  territory  likely  to  be  acquirejLft-om  Mexico. 

This  amendment,  which  became  "famous  as  the  "  Wilmot 
Proviso,"  excited  a  heated  debate  in  Congress.  It  aroused 


FOLK'S    ADMINISTRATION. 


327 


passionate  feeling  in  both  parties.  It  was  defeated  by  a 
small  majority,  but  is  of  historical  importance  as  an  inci 
dent  in  the  slavery  contest,  which  was  soon  to  become  so 
active.  The  growing  anti-slavery  sentiment  in  the  North 
was  now  amply  represented  in  Congress,  and  was  to  become 
the  leading  feature  in  legislation  for  the  next  fifteen  years. 

The  Sub-Treasury  System. — The  system  of  government 
treasuries,  established  in  the  Van  Buren  administration,  had 
been  abolished  by  the  Whigs  in  1841,  and  the  government 
had  again  been  forced  to  deposit  its  funds  in  private  banks. 
In  1846  a  new  and  improved  sub-treasury  system  was 
adopted.  This  system  is  still  in  force.  In  the  same  year 
a  new  tariff  bill  was  passed,  reducing  the  duties.  It  was 
based  on  the  principle  of  tariff  for  revenue  only,  and  con 
tinued  in  effect  until  1861. 

Gold  in  California. — The  new  country  purchased  from 
Mexico  proved  to  be  immensely  more  valuable  than  any 


SAN  FRANCISCO  IN  1848. 


one  had  dreamed.  It  contained  vast  stores  of  gold  and 
silver,  of  which  the  Spaniards,  during  their  period  of  oc 
cupancy,  had  found  little  trace.  The  Americans  were  not 
long  in  making  the  discovery.  Just  before  the  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  (January,  1848)  a  workman  engaged  in 


328  THE   SLAVERY   CONTEST. 

digging  a  mill-race  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  discovered  in  its 
gravel  deposits  shining  particles  of  gold.  The  news  spread 
rapidly.  The  search  was  extended  far  around,  and  gold 
was  found  to  be  abundant.  "  Gold  was  everywhere, — in 
the  soil,  in  the  river  sand,  in  the  mountain  rock."  San 
Francisco  at  that  time  contained  about  four  hundred  inhab 
itants.  When  the  news  reached  this  town  it  was  deserted, 
the  excited  populace  starting  in  haste  for  the  mines.  Only 
one  thought  existed  in  California,  to  dig  a  fortune  from  the 
gold-strewn  soil. 

The  "  Gold  Fever." — When  tidings  of  the  discovery 
reached  the  East  a  rapid  emigration  to  California  began. 
From  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  from  Europe  men 
hastened  to  the  golden  fields.  Some  crossed  the  continent, 
some  made  their  way  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  some 
sailed  around  Cape  Horn.  Many  died  on  the  Isthmus  route. 
Many  perished  in  the  long  journey  over  the  plains,  where 
the  line  of  march  was  indicated  by  the  skeletons  of  ani 
mals.  But  thousands  reached  California,  whose  population 
rapidly  increased.  The  growth  of  San  Francisco  was  a 
marvel.  In  a  short  time  its  population  rose  to  twenty 
thousand,  while  a  far  greater  number  had  flocked  to  the 
mining  region. 

The  Vigilance  Committees. — Bad  men  as  well  as  good 
sought  the  land  of  gold.  Of  those  that  settled  in  San  Fran 
cisco,  many  sought  to  grow  rich  by  robbing  the  miners 
through  gambling  and  other  devices.  The  town  swarmed 
with  reckless  and  lawless  adventurers.  Thieves  and  repro 
bates  abounded.  The  trouble  soon  grew  so  serious  that  the 
respectable  people  were  obliged  to  take  the  law  into  their 
own  hands.  They  formed  themselves  into  what  were  called 
"vigilance  committees,"  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing 
crime.  The  justice  administered  was  rude  but  prompt. 


FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION.  329 

Villains  were  hung  with  little  ceremony,  and  the  community 
soon  became  law-abiding. 

The  Progress  of  California. — The  people  of  California 
applied  in  1849  for  admission  to  the  Union,  under  a  consti 
tution  that  prohibited  slavery.  Admission  was  granted  in 
1850.  Within  seven  years  from  the  discovery  of  gold  nearly 
five  hundred  million  dollars'  worth  had  been  obtained.  As 
the  gold  to  be  had  from  the  sands  gave  out,  and  costly  oper 
ations  upon  the  rocks  were  required,  many  men  turned  their 
attention  to  agriculture,  and  found  in  the  grain- fields,  vine 
yards,  and  orchards  a  richer  source  of  wealth  than  in  the 
mines.  To-day  California  is  one  of  the  most  productive 
States  in  the  Union. 

The  Free-Soil  Party. — The  succeeding  Presidential  elec 
tion  found  a  new  party  in  the  field.  The  failure  of  the  Wil- 
mot  Proviso  had  alarmed  the  opponents  of  the  extension 
of  slavery,  and  what  was  called  the  "  Free-Soil"  party  arose. 
It  declared  for  "  free  soil  for  a  free  people."  It  did  not 
propose  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  existing  States,  but 
opposed  its  establishment  in  the  Territories  and  new  States. 

The  Election  of  1848. — The  Free-Soil  party  nominated 
Martin  Van  Buren  for  President  and  Charles  Francis 
Adams  for  Vice-President.  The  Democratic  party,  having 
declared  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  interfere  with 
slavery,  nominated  Lewis  Cass  and  William  D.  Butler. 
The  Whigs  avoided  the  slavery  dispute,  and  chose  as  their 
candidate  the  popular  hero  of  the  Mexican  War,  General 
Zachary  Taylor.  For  Vice-President  Millard  Fillmore  was 
nominated. 

General  Taylor  proved  to  be  the  successful  candidate. 
He  received  one  hundred  and  sixty-three  votes  to  one  hun 
dred  and  twenty-seven  for  Cass.  Van  Buren  received  nc 
electoral  votes. 


330  THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

2*  Ube  Uaplor1  ant)  jffllmore2  Hfcministratfona, 

The  Slavery  Problem. — With  the  new  administration 
came  in  new  and  important  questions.  These  were  based 
on  the  controversy  concerning  the 
extension  of  slavery  into  the  terri 
tory  acquired  from  Mexico,  which 
had  been  started  by  the  Wilmot 
Proviso  and  still  largely  occupied 
men's  minds.  Texas  claimed  that 
her  western  boundary  followed  the 
Rio  Grande  to  its  source.  This  took 
in  territory  which  had  never  been 
ZACHAKY  TAYLOR  Par^  °^  Texas,  but  the  claim  was 

strongly   pushed,  and   was   widely 

supported  in  the  South.  Should  California  be  admitted 
as  a  free  State  ?  If  New  Mexico  and  Utah  were  formed 
into  Territories,  should  slavery  exist  within  their  borders  ? 

1  Zachary  Taylor  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1784,  his  parents  soon 
after  removing  to  Kentucky.    He  received  little  education,  and  worked 
hard  till  the  age  of  twenty-four,  when  he  obtained  an  appointment  in 
the  army  as  lieutenant.     He  served  in  the  War  of  1812  and  the  Black 
Hawk  and  Seminole  Wars,  rising  in  rank  till  he  became  a  major-gen 
eral.     He  gained  a  high  reputation  in  the  Mexican  War,  energy  and 
readiness  winning  him  the  title  of  "  Old  Rough  and  Ready."     He  was 
opposed  by  many  Whigs  as  a  slave-holder  (though  he  did  not  favor  the 
extension  of  slavery)  and  as  one  who  knew  nothing  of  civil  affairs.     Yet 
he  filled  the  Presidential  office  acceptably,  dying  in  office  July  9,  1850. 

2  Millard   Fillmore  was   born  in   New  York   in  1800.     He  taught 
school,  practised  law,  and  became  a  member  of  the  New  York  assem 
bly  and  of  Congress.     When  nominated  for  Vice-President  he  was 
comptroller  of  the  State  of  New  York.     He  was  esteemed  for  ability 
and  integrity,  but  lost  popularity  in  the  North  from  signing  the  Fugi 
tive  Slave  bill.    He  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the  American 
party  in  1856,  and  died  in  1874.     . 


THE  TAYLOR   AND  FILLMORE   ADMINISTRATIONS.     331 

The  South  demanded  a  more  efficient  law  for  the  return 
of  runaway  slaves  to  their  owners.  The  North  complained 
that  the  slave-trade  was  permitted  within  the  city  of  Wash 
ington.  In  truth,  all  the  leading  political  problems  of  the 
day  had  to  do  with  slavery. 

The  Compromise  of  185O. — These  questions  gave  rise  to 
prolonged  and  bitter  debates.  Threats  of  secession  were 
made  on  both  sides.  Moderate  men  hoped  for  some  satis 
factory  settlement,  and  Henry  Clay,  who,  thirty  years  before, 
had  quieted  the  slavery  agitation  by  the  Missouri  Compro 
mise,  now  came  forward  with  a  new  compromise  measure, 
in  which  the  demands  of  the  two  sides  were  balanced 
against  each  other. 

This  compromise,  which  became  known  as  the  "  Omnibus 
Bill,"  from  the  various  measures  it  carried,  embraced  the 
following  provisions : 

1.  California  should  be  admitted  as  a  free  State. 

2.  New  Mexico  and  Utah  should  be  formed  into  Terri 
tories,  and  the  question  of  the  admission  of  slavery  be  left 
for  their  people  to  decide. 

3.  Texas  should  give  up  part  of  the  territory  it  claimed, 
and  be  paid  ten  million  dollars  as  a  recompense. 

4.  The  slave-trade  should  be  prohibited  in  the  District 
of  Columbia. 

5.  A  stringent  law  for  the  return  of  fugitive   slaves  to 
their  masters  should  be  enacted. 

This  bill  could  not  be  enacted  as  a  whole,  but  its  different 
sections  were  taken  up  and  passed  separately.  The  new 
laws  were  received  by  many  with  satisfaction,  in  the  belief 
that  they  would  bring  the  dispute  about  slavery  to  an 
end.  But  when  an  effort  was  made  to  enforce  the  new 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  it  gave  rise  to  much  opposition  in  the 
North. 


332  THE  SLAVERY   CONTEST. 

The  Fugitive  Slave  Law. — The  opposition  to  this  law 
arose  largely  from  the  stringency  of  its  provisions.  The 
fugitive  when  arrested  was  not  permitted  to  testify  in  his 
own  behalf  or  to  claim  trial  by  jury.  All  persons  were 
required  to  assist  the  United  States  marshal  when  called 
upon  for  aid.  To  assist  a  fugitive  to  escape  was  an  offence 
punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 

In  the  last  two  respects  the  law  failed.  Few  persons  in 
the  North  would  aid  in  an  arrest.  Many  aided  in  the  escape 
of  slaves.  This  was  done  by  secret  methods  which  came  to 
be  known  as  the  "  Underground  Railroad."  Many  hun 
dreds  of  slaves  were  helped  to  make  their  escape  to  Canada. 
Slaves  who  had  been  seized  were  rescued.  The  attempt  at 
capture  gave  rise  in  some  localities  to 
riots.  The  law  did  much  to  add  to 
the  strength  of  the  anti-slavery  party, 
and  many  States  passed  "  Personal 
Liberty  Laws,"  designed  to  obstruct 
the  operation  of  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law.1 

Death  of  the  President. — President 
Taylor  survived  his  election  only  a 
little  over  a  year.  The  heat  of  the 

MILLARD  FILLMOBE.  ^    Qf    My?    ^^    brOUgM     OR     Si    feVQT 

from  which  he  died  on  the  9th.  Vice- 
President  Fillmore  succeeded  him.  The  Whigs  had  been 
particularly  unfortunate  in  their  Presidents.  They  had 

1  In  1852,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  published  a  story  of  slave  life  in 
the  South,  called  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  which  created  an  immense 
sensation,  over  two  hundred  thousand  copies  being  sold  within  a  year. 
It  added  greatly  to  the  strength  of  the  anti-slavery  sentiment  in  the 
North.  It  was  read  all  over  Europe,  and  has  been  translated  into 
more  than  twenty  different  languages. 


THE  TAYLOR  AND   FILLMORE   ADMINISTRATIONS.    333 

elected  only  two,  and  both  these  had  died  after  a  brief 
period  of  service. 

Other  Deaths. — The  period  of  the  present  administra 
tion  was  marked  by  the  death  of  several  of  America's 
greatest  statesmen.  Calhoun  died  a  short  time  before  the 
President.  Clay  and  Webster  passed  away  in  1852.  New 
men  were  coming  forward  to  take  their  places  in  Congress, 
including  Sumner,  Douglas,  Lincoln,  Davis,  and  others  who 
were  soon  to  become  prominent  in  public  affairs.1 

Progress  of  the  Country. — Little  of  political  interest  took 
place  during  Fillmore's  term.  Compromise  had  for  the 
time  harmonized  Congress.  Meanwhile,  the  country  was 
rapidly  growing  and  developing.  Railroads  were  extending 
steadily  westward,  telegraph  wires  were  covering  the  coun 
try  like  a  net-work,  manufactures  were  rapidly  increasing, 
immigrants  were  pouring  into  the  country,  population  wras 
spreading  widely  over  the  West. 

It  was  a  period  also  of  inventive  activity.  The  sewing- 
machine  had  been  invented  by  Elias  Howe  in  1846,  but  it 
was  not  until  1854  that  he  established  his  claim  to  the  in 
vention  and  reaped  the  well-earned  benefit.  In  1844  was 
patented  the  Goodyear  india-rubber  process,  one  of  the 
most  useful  of  American  inventions. 

In  1851  an  important  postal  reform  was  made,  postage  on 
letters  being  reduced  to  three  cents  per  half-ounce  for  all 
parts  of  the  country  except  the  extreme  West.  In  1849  a 
new  department,  called  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  was 
added  to  the  government.  To  its  care  were  given  all  matters 

1  In  1851  a  party  of  filibusters,  as  they  were  called,  invaded  Cuba, 
with  the  hope  of  conquering  that  island  and  annexing  it  to  the  United 
States.  They  were  defeated,  and  Lopez,  their  leader,  being  captured, 
was  executed  at  Havana. 


334  THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

connected  with  internal  affairs,  such  as  the  Public  Lands, 
Pensions,  Census,  Education,  and  the  Indians. 

The  Election  of  1852. — The  election  of  1852  brought  the 
same  parties  into  the  field  as  in  1848,  the  Democratic,  the 
Whig,  and  the  Free-Soil.  The  Whigs  nominated  Winfield 
Scott,  hoping  for  success  from  his  war  record.  The  Dem 
ocrats,  after  a  long  contest,  nominated  Franklin  Pierce, 
of  New  Hampshire.  The  Free-Soilers  nominated  John  P. 
Hale,  also  from  New  Hampshire.  They  obtained  no  elec 
toral  votes.  Scott  obtained  but  forty-two.  Pierce  obtained 
two  hundred  and  fifty-four,  and  was  elected  President. 
William  R.  King  was  elected  Vice-President. 

3,  BMerce's  Hfcministration. 

The  Gadsden  Purchase.— On  the  4th  of  March,  1853, 
Franklin  Pierce  l  was  inaugurated  President  of  the  United 
States.  His  administration  was  des 
tined  to  be  full  of  trouble.  A  boundary 
dispute  with  Mexico  was  the  first  diffi 
culty.  It  was  settled,  as  already  stated, 
by  the  purchase,  for  ten  million  dol 
lars,  of  the  tract  of  land  since  known  as 
the  Gadsden  Purchase. 

Extension   of    Slavery. — But  the 
principal  difficulty  arose  from  the  de 
sire  of  the  South  to  extend  the  area 
FRANKLIN  FIERCE.          open  to  slavery.     The  admission  of 
California  had  given  the  free  States  a 
preponderance  in  Congress.     The  Territories  made  from  the 
Mexican  Purchase  were  open  to  slavery,  but  were  not  likely 


1  Franklin  Pierce  was  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1804,  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827,  served  in  the  House  of  Repre- 


PIERCE'S  ADMINISTRATION.  335 

to  become  States  for  years.  The  Territories  made  from  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  were  closed  against  slavery  by  the  Mis 
souri  Compromise,  and  their  admission  as  States  would  give 
the  free  States  a  considerable  preponderance. 

The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill. — In  1854  a  significant  step 
was  taken.  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  a  Democratic  Senator 
from  Illinois,  introduced  a  bill  for  the  organization  of  two 
new  Territories  from  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  west  of  Mis 
souri  and  Iowa.  Both  of  these  lay  north  of  the  parallel  of 
36°  30',  and  therefore,  by  the  Missouri  Compromise,  could 
not  be  made  slave  States.  But  in  this  bill  it  was  proposed 
that  the  new  Territories  should  be  open  to  slavery  if  their 
inhabitants  desired  it.  This  doctrine  of  the  rights  of  settlers 
became  known  as  "  squatter  sovereignty,"  the  early  settlers 
being  often  called  squatters. 

The  bill  created  much  excitement.  Northern  members 
said  that  it  was  a  breach  of  faith.  It  was,  however,  passed 
and  signed  by  the  President.  It  practically  repealed  the 
Missouri  Compromise,  and  opened  the  way  for  the  rapidly 
coming  conflict  between  the  forces  of  freedom  and  slavery. 

Results  of  the  Bill. — The  results  of  this  measure  were 
different  from  what  either  party  expected.  The  new  bill 
divided  what  was  formerly  Nebraska  Territory  into  two 
Territories,  the  northern  being  still  called  Nebraska,  the 
southern  being  named  Kansas.  It  was  no  sooner  signed 
than  the  abolition  party  at  the  North  took  steps  to  defeat 
its  purpose  by  sending  settlers  of  their  own  political  faith 
into  Kansas.  The  Southern  party  did  the  same,  and  for  a 

sentatives  from  1833  to  1835,  and  in  the  United  States  Senate  from 
1837  to  1843.  He  enlisted  as  a  volunteer  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Mexi 
can  War,  but  soon  gained  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  later  that  of  briga 
dier-general.  In  politics  he  was  a  zealous  pro-slavery  Democrat,  but 
espoused  the  national  cause  in  the  Civil  War.  He  died  in  1869. 


336  THE  SLAVERY   CONTEST. 

time  there  was  an  active  flow  of  pro-slavery  and  anti-slavery 
settlers  into  the  Territory. 

The  Fight  for  Kansas. — This  soon  led  to  its  natural 
result,  from  the  close  contact  of  settlers  bitterly  hostile  to 
each  other.  The  pro-slavery  settlers  began  to  build  a  town 
named  Atchison,  near  the  Missouri  border.  The  anti- 
slavery  settlers  started  the  town  of  Lawrence,  farther  to 
the  west.  Each  party  organized  a  government  of  its  own, 
and  neither  acknowledged  that  of  the  other. 

The  hostile  feeling  that  prevailed  soon  led  to  blows. 
Fights  took  place  and  blood  was  shed.  The  pro-slavery 
forces  attacked  and  plundered  Lawrence.  In  return  for 
this  attack  a  party  of  anti-slavery  men,  led  by  an  old  man 
named  John  Brown,  assailed  and  killed  several  of  their 
opponents,  crossed  into  Missouri,  freed  a  number  of  slaves: 
destroyed  considerable  property,  and  shot  one  of  the  slave 
owners. 

The  End  of  the  Contest. — A  virtual  state  of  war  thus 
existed,  and  fighting  went  on  for  three  years,  from  1855  to 
1858.  But  the  Northern  settlers  poured  in  much  more 
rapidly  than  those  from  the  South,  and  in  the  end  won  the 
victory  by  force  of  numbers.  All  hope  of  making  Kansas 
a  slave  State  was  given  up,  and  it  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  as  a  free  State  in  1861. 

The  Assault  on  Sumner. — The  quarrel  in  Kansas  was 
reflected  in  the  halls  of  Congress,  where  a  state  of  bitter 
hostility  existed  between  the  two  parties.  It  gave  rise  in 
1856  to  an  act  of  violence.  On  May  19  and  20,  Charles 
Sumner,  a  Senator  from  Massachusetts,  made  a  vigorous 
speech  on  Kansas  affairs,  in  which  he  spoke  severely  of  one 
of  the  Senators  from  South  Carolina.  Two  days  afterward 
Preston  S.  Brooks,  a  Bepresentative  from  that  State,  and 
nephew  of  the  Senator  attacked,  came  into  the  Senate- 


PIERCE'S  ADMINISTRATION.  337 

chamber  after  adjournment  and  made  a  brutal  assault  on 
Sumner,  who  was  seated  at  his  desk.  He  beat  him  over 
the  head  with  a  heavy  cane,  injuring  him  so  severely  that 
it  was  four  years  before  he  was  able  to  resume  his 
seat.1 

Hostile  Peeling-. — Brooks  was  censured  by  Congress, 
and  fined  by  a  Washington  court.  He  at  once  resigned, 
but  was  immediately  re-elected,  only  six  votes  being  cast 
against  him.  This  action  added  greatly  to  the  hostile  feel 
ing  between  the  two  parties  in  Congress,  a  feeling  which 
was  reflected  in  the  two  sections  of  the  country.  There 
was  as  yet  no  expectation  of  war,  but  the  irritation  was 
growing  great. 

The  American  Party. — Slavery  was  not  the  only  subject 
on  which  partisan  feeling  existed.  Immigration  had  become 
so  great  as  to  give  rise  to  alarm,  and  the  ease  with  which 
the  naturalization  laws  were  evaded  caused  irritation.  Irish 
and  other  immigrants  were  being  made  citizens  and  elected 
to  official  positions  soon  after  landing  on  our  shores.  As  a 
result,  a  movement  began  in  favor  of  restricting  the  suffrage 
to  native  Americans,  or  giving  it  to  foreigners  only  after  long 
residence. 

From  this  feeling  there  arose  a  secret  political  society, 
whose  members,  when  asked  any  questions  about  it,  replied, 
u  I  don't  know."  From  this  it  became  known  as  the  "  Know- 
Nothing"  party.  It  grew  rapidly,  and  took  a  position  in 

1  Charles  Sumner  was  born  at  Boston  in  1811.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  University,  studied  law,  and  in  1850  became  a  United  States 
Senator,  remaining  in  the  Senate  till  his  death  in  1874.  He  was  a 
prominent  leader  in  the  Free-Soil  party  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Republican  party.  In  the  new  school  of  statesmen  Sumner  occupied 
one  of  the  highest  positions,  and  was  widely  esteemed  for  the  upright 
ness  of  his  character. 

22 


338  THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

politics  as  the  American  party.  It  soon  died  away,  how 
ever,  and  disappeared  after  the  election  of  1856. 

The  Republican  Party. — The  country  was  in  no  condi 
tion  for  side  issues  in  politics  while  the  slavery  question 
was  so  prominent  in  men's  minds.  The  anti-slavery  feel 
ing  was  rapidly  growing  in  the  North,  and  drawing  into  its 
ranks  many  members  of  the  Free-Soil,  Whig,  American,  and 
Democratic  parties.  The  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill  greatly  strengthened  this  feeling,  and  in  the  succeeding 
election  the  opponents  of  slavery  extension  gained  a  major 
ity  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

They  were  at  first  known  as  "  Anti-Nebraska  men."  They 
soon,  however,  definitely  organized  into  a  party  which  took 
the  name  of  Republican.  Into  its  ranks  came  the  remnants 
of  the  Whig  and  Free-Soil  parties,  and  all  those  who  advo 
cated  the  prohibition  of  slavery  in  the  Territories.  It  did 
not,  however,  propose  to  attack  slavery  where  it  already 
existed,  and  it*  thus  failed  to  absorb  into  its  ranks  the  ex 
treme  abolitionists. 

The  Opening  of  Japan. — Turning  our  attention  from  the 
political  situation,  we  find  several  events  of  importance  to 
note  in  this  administration.  Much  the  most  important  of 
these  in  its  results  was  that  relating  to  Japan.  For  several 
centuries  the  ports  of  that  country  had  been  almost  com 
pletely  closed  to  foreign  trade.  In  1853,  Commodore 
.Matthew  C.  Perry  visited  Japan  with  a  United  States  fleet 
He  found  the  Japanese  strongly  prejudiced  against  inter 
course  with  foreign  countries,  but  by  persistence  succeeded 
in  1854  in  inducing  their  government  to  make  a  treaty 
admitting  our  ships  to  trade. 

Other  nations  had  tried  this  in  vain.  The  Japanese 
strongly  dreaded  Europeans.  But  their  country  once  opened, 
they  quickly  perceived  the  advantages  of  the  world's  com- 


PIERCE'S   ADMINISTRATION.  339 

merce,  and  hastened  to  avail  themselves  of  the  results  of 
Western  civilization.  So  rapidly  did  Japan  now  progress, 
that  in  forty  years  from  Perry's  visit  it  had  taken  its  place 
as  one  of  the  prominent  nations  of  the  world. 

World's  Fair  in  New  York. — The  first  World's  Fair  out 
side  of  France  had  been  held  in  London  in  1851.  It  was 
known  as  the  Crystal  Palace  Exhibition.  It  was  followed 
by  the  American  World's  Fair,  held  in  New  York  in  1853. 
This  also  was  held  in  a  building  of  glass  and  iron  which 
was  called  the  "  Crystal  Palace."  It  was  of  great  use  in 
teaching  the  people  of  this  country  what  valuable  products 
the  nations  of  Europe  had  to  show.  It  also  proved  that 
the  Americans  had  no  superior  in  labor-saving  machinery. 
Their  power-looms,  printing-presses,  sewing-machines,  reap 
ers  and  mowers,  and  other  machines  showed  the  immense 
advance  which  this  country  had  made  in  inventions,  and 
how  greatly  the  people  had  progressed  beyond  their  old 
system  of  hand  work. 

The  Election  of  1856. — James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  and  John  C.  Breckenridge,  of  Kentucky,  were  nomi 
nated  by  the  Democrats  for  their  candidates  in  the  Presi 
dential  election  of  1856.  The  American  party  macle  its 
only  Presidential  nomination,  naming  Millard  Fillmore,  late 
President,  and  Andrew  J.  Donelson,  of  Tennessee.  More 
important  was  the  nomination  of  the  new  Republican  party, 
which  held  its  first  convention,  and  chose  for  its  candidates 
John  C.  Fremont,  of  California,  and  William  L.  Dayton,  of 
New  Jersey. 

In  the  election  that,  followed  Buchanan  and  Brecken 
ridge  were  elected,  but  the  new  party  carried  eleven  out  of 
the  fifteen  free  States,  and  received  nearly  as  many  votes 
as  their  opponents.  The  American  party  carried  only  the 
State  of  Maryland. 


340  THE  SLAVERY   CONTEST. 

4.  UBucbanan's  Hfcministration. 

A  Stormy  Administration. — James  Buchanan l  took  his 
seat  as  President  on  March  4,  1857.  He  succeeded  to  a 
period  of  storm  and  stress.  The  hos 
tility  between  the  two  sections  of  the 
country  was  increasing  with  dangerous 
rapidity,  the  elements  of  coming  con 
flict  were  everywhere  in  the  air,  and 
long-sighted  statesmen  began  to  fear 
that  the  local  war  in  Kansas  might  be 
followed  by  general  war  in  the  Union. 
Growth  of  Abolitionism. — The  un- 
JAMES  BUCHANAN.  expected  strength  of  the  new  Repub 
lican  party  alarmed  the  Southern 
leaders.  Evidently  abolitionism  was  rapidly  growing.  It 
was  discussed  everywhere,  from  pulpit  and  platform,  in 
newspapers  and  magazines.  Many  Northerners  favored 
concessions  to  the  South  to  avoid  the  threatened  hostilities, 
and  this  seeming  sympathy  made  the  Southern  members  of 
Congress  more  aggressive.  Yet  when  actual  war  broke  out 
most  of  these  seeming  sympathizers  became  strong  sup 
porters  of  the  Union. 

Causes  of  Sectional  Feeling. — The  quarrel  jn  Kansas, 
the  influence  of  Mrs.  Stowe's  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  the 
attack  on  Surnner,  the  operation  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law, 
the  aggressive  attitude  of  the  Southern  members  of  Con 
gress,  the  sympathy  with  Southern  Democracy  of  the  Pierce 

1  James  Buchanan  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1791.  He  served  in 
Congress  from  1820  to  1831,  as  minister  to  Russia  from  1832  to  1834, 
and  as  Senator  from  1834  to  1845.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  under 
President  Polk,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  England  by  President 
Pierce.  He  died  in  1868. 


BUCHANAN'S  ADMINISTRATION.  341 

and  Buchanan  administrations,  all  added  to  the  strength  of 
the  anti-slavery  party  of  the  North.  And  a  new  event  now 
came  to  favor  its  increase.  Two  days  after  the  inauguration 
of  President  Buchanan  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  rendered  a  judgment  which  added  greatly  to  the 
stringency  of  public  feeling. 

The  Dred  Scott  Case. — Dred  Scott  was  a  slave  whose 
owner  lived  in  Missouri.  In  1834  he  was  taken  by  his 
master  to  the  free  State  of  Illinois,  where  they  lived  for  the 
succeeding  four  years,  and  then  removed  into  what  was 
afterward  the  State  of  Miunesota.  After  their  return  to 
Missouri  Scott  was  whipped  for  some  fault,  and  brought 
suit  for  assault  and  battery,  claiming  to  be  free  from  his 
long  residence  on  free  soil,  and  asserting  that  the  bringing 
him  back  to  Missouri  did  not  make  him  a  slave. 

This  case  was  tried  in  several  courts,  one  of  which  gave 
judgment  in  Scott's  favor.  At  length  it  reached  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  That  body  decided  that  Scott 
was  not  a  citizen  and  had  no  right  to  bring  suit.  It  was 
further  decided  that  slave-owners  had  a  right  to  take  their 
slaves  where  they  pleased,  just  as  they  could  take  any  other 
article  of  property,  as  a  watch  or  a  horse.1 

This  decision  startled  the  North.  It  opened  a  new  field 
for  the  extension  of  slavery.  Under  it  slave-owners  might 
dwell  in  what  State  or  Territory  they  pleased  and  keep  as 
many  slaves  with  them  as  they  chose. 

The  John  Brown  Raid. — An  event  of  still  more  startling 
significance  happened  two  years  afterward.  John  Brown, 


1  Chief  Justice  Taney  declared  that  when  the  Constitution  was 
adopted  negroes  had  long  been  regarded  as  beings  of  a  lower  order 
than  the  whites,  "and  so  far  inferior  that  they  had  no  rights  which 
the  white  man  was  bound  to  respect.1' 


342  THE   SLAVERY   CONTEST. 

of  whose  leadership  in  the  Kansas  trouble  we  have  spoken, 
was  an  old  man  wiio  had  become  fanatical  in  his  abolition 
sentiments.  He  moved  to  Kansas  in  1855,  and  was  there 
very  active  in  the  work  of  bloodshed.  In  the  summer  of 
1859  he  made  his  way  to  the  vicinity  of  Harper's  Ferry,  in 
Virginia,  moved  by  the  wild  purpose  of  starting  an  insurrec 
tion  among  the  slaves.  He  believed  that  if  they  had  a 
leader,  and  promise  of  freedom,  they  would  rise  against 
their  masters  and  start  a  war  against  slavery. 

Much  brooding  over  his  ideas  had  made  the  fanatical  old 
man  nearly  insane.  He  was  brave,  but  his  project  was 
hopeless.  One  night  in  October,  with  about  twenty  fol 
lowers,  whom  he  had  won  over  to  his  views,  he  attacked 
the  United  States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  hoping  to  make 
this  a  rallying-place  for  slaves,  whom  he  expected  to  come 
in  numbers  to  his  aid. 

Failure  of  the  Raid. — The  slaves  did  not  come,  the 
arsenal  was  captured,  some  of  its  defenders  were  killed, 
others  made  prisoners.  Brown  was  tried  by  the  State  of 
Virginia  and  hanged.  Six  of  his  followers  were  hanged. 
Two  only  of  the  band  made  their  escape.  This  attempt 
found  little  support  in  the  North,  many  ardent  abolitionists 
looking  upon  it  as  an  act  of  madness.  In  the  South  it 
aroused  fears  of  the  horrors  of  a  negro  insurrection,  and  did 
much  to  increase  the  stringency  of  the  situation.  At  a  later 
date  John  Brown  was  regarded  by  many  as  the  pioneer  of 
the  war,  and  a  song  to  his  memory  became  popular  with 
the  Union  soldiers. 

New  States. — Three  new  States  were  admitted  to  the 
Union  during  the  Buchanan  administration,  Minnesota  in 
1858,  Oregon  in  1859,  and  Kansas,  in  which  the  anti-slavery 
forces  had  completely  won,  in  1861.  These  were  all  free 
States,  and  added  to  the  majority  of  the  North  in  the  Seriate. 


BUCHANAN'S  ADMINISTRATION.  343 

A  Business  Panic. — In  the  midst  of  the  threatening  situ 
ation  a  new  trouble  came  suddenly  upon  the  people.  A 
large  business  house  failed  in  Cincinnati  in  August,  1857. 
It  was  a  result  of  over-speculation  and  too  great  stimulation 
of  business,  arising  in  a  measure  from  the  discovery  of  gold 
in  California  and  the  rapid  growth  of  wealth  in  consequence. 
More  railroads  had  been  built. than  were  wanted;  more 
goods  were  being  made  than  could  be  sold  ;  merchants 
had  filled  their  stores  with  goods  bought  on  credit ;  the 
whole  business  of  the  country  was  in  an  unhealthy  condi 
tion. 

The  one  failure  soon  brought  others.  The  host  of  State 
banks  had  taken  part  in  the  speculative  movement,  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  them  failed.  Money  almost  disappeared 
from  circulation,  for  the  bank-notes  became  worthless. 
Thousands  of  business  men  were  ruined,  and  multitudes  of 
working-men  were  brought  to  the  verge  of  beggary.  The 
experience  of  1837  was  repeated,  several  years  passing  be 
fore  prosperity  returned  to  the  country. 

Ocean  Telegraph  Cable. — For  several  years  Cyrus  W. 
Field,  an  enterprising  citizen  of  New  York,  had  been  actively 
engaged  in  a  project  to  lay  a  telegraph  line  under  the  At 
lantic  Ocean.  In  1846  a  message  had  been  sent  under  the 
Hudson  River,  on  a  wire  coated  with  gutta-percha.  If  this 
could  be  done  for  a  short,  why  not  for  a  long  distance? 
The  ocean  was  sounded  between  Ireland  and  Newfoundland, 
and  found  to  be  nowhere  more  than  two  and  a  half  miles 
deep,  while  its  bottom  was  nearly  level.  At  length,  after 
many  experiments,  a  telegraph  cable  was  laid  in  1858.  A 
few  messages  were  sent  across  it  and  then  it  failed  to 
work.  But  its  possibility  had  been  proved,  and  Mr.  Field 
continued  his  efforts  until  a  successful  cable  was  laid  in 
1866. 


344  THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

The  Lincoln  and  Doug-las  Debate. — During  the  period 
under  consideration  two  citizens  of  Illinois  came  into  na 
tional  prominence.  One  of  these  was  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
the  Democratic  Senator  from  Illinois  who  had  introduced 


LAYING  THE  ATLANTIC  CABLE. 

the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill.  He  was  again  a  candidate  for 
election  to  the  Senate,  and  was  opposed  by  Abraham  Lin 
coln,  the  Republican  candidate,  and  a  man  who  had  risen 
by  force  of  character  from  poverty  and  hard  labor  to  the 
Illinois  legislature  and  the  United  States  Congress. 

Lincoln  was  remarkably  able  in  debate,  and  he  "  took  the 
stump"  against  Douglas,  also  an  able  speaker.  They  went 
from  town  to  town  of  Illinois,  speaking  on  national  politics. 
In  this  debate  Lincoln  grew  famous.  He  forced  Douglas  to 
make  statements  about  the  Dred  Scott  decision  which  lost 
him  favor  in  the  South  and  ruined  his  hopes  of  the  Presi 
dency,  though  he  was  elected  Senator  by  a  small  majority. 
During  the  debate  Lincoln  took  such  a  decided  stand  on 


BUCHANAN'S  ADMINISTRATION.  345 

the  slavery  question  as  to  make  him  the  favorite  of  the 
Republican  party,  and  to  gain  him  the  Presidency  in  the 
coming  election. 

The  Election  of  1860. — In  1860  came  the  most  momen 
tous  Presidential  election  in  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
The  feeling  of  hostility  between  the  two  sections  of  the 
country  had  grown  so  intense  that  open  threats  of  secession 
of  the  Southern  States  were  made  in  the  event  of  the  elec 
tion  of  a  Republican  President.  Yet  the  Democratic  party 
took  a  step  which  rendered  defeat  highly  probable.  It 
divided  into  two  sections,  the  strong  pro-slavery  men 
nominating  John  C.  Rreckenridge,  the  moderate  section  of 
the  party  nominating  Stephen  A.  Douglas.  The  Republi 
cans  chose  Abraham  Lincoln  as  their  candidate,  with 
Hannibal  Hamlin,  of  Maine,  for  Vice-President.  A  remnant 
of  Whigs  and  Know-Nothings  in  the  South,  calling  them 
selves  the  Constitutional  Union  party,  nominated  John  Bell, 
of  Tennessee,  and  Edward  Everett,  of  Massachusetts. 

The  break  among  the  Democrats  assured  the  election  of 
Lincoln.  He  received  one  hundred  and  eighty  of  the  three 
hundred  and  three  electoral  votes.  Rreckenridge  received 
seventy-two,  Bell  thirty-nine,  and  Douglas  twelve.  Douglas 
had  a  very  large  popular  vote,  but  lost  the  electoral  vote  of 
nearly  all  the  Northern  States. 

Secession. — The  election  of  Lincoln  produced  the  threat 
ened  effect.  As  soon  as  it  was  known  the  South  Carolina 
Senators  and  office-holders  resigned.  A  convention  was 
called  by  the  legislature  of  that  State,  and  on  December  20 
an  ordinance  of  secession  from  the  Union  was  passed. 
The  example  thus  given  was  quickly  followed.  Before  the 
end  of  January,  1861,  five  other  States  had  seceded, — 
Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana* 
Texas  followed  in  February. 


346  THE  SLAVERY  CONTEST. 

Confederate  States. — On  February  4  delegates  from  the 
seceding  States  met  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  and  organized 
a  new  government,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Confederate 
States  of  America."  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  was 
chosen  President,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  of  Georgia, 
Vice-President.  In  March  a  constitution  was  adopted  for 
the  Confederacy,  one  of  whose  sections  forbade  forever  any 
attempt  to  emancipate  the  slaves. 

The  Government  Paralyzed. — This  decisive  action  of 
the  South  paralyzed  the  government.  Southern  leaders 
were  leaving  Washington,  Southern 
officers  giving  up  their  commissions, 
materials  of  war  being  confiscated,  and 
United  States  forts  and  arsenals  being 
seized  by  the  South,  and  yet  President 
Buchanan  took  no  action.  He  was 
surrounded  by  Southern  advisers,  and 
though  he  did  not  believe  in  the  right 
of  secession,  he  did  not  think  he  had 

JEFFEKSON  DAVIS.  the  rightjo  Use  force  to  keeP  anY  State 

in  the  Union.  Compromises  were 
offered  in  Congress,  a  Peace  Conference  was  held  in  Wash 
ington,  with  ex-President  John  Tyler  as  chairman,  and 
other  steps  in  the  direction  of  conciliation  were  taken. 
But  none  of  these  proved  acceptable,  and  the  people  anx- 
rously  waited  until  the  4th  of  March  should  bring  a  new 
President  and  a  new  policy. 

When  that  time  came  the  government  possessed  only 
three  fortifications  in  the  South, — Fort  Sumter  in  Charles 
ton  harbor,  Fort  Pickens  at  Pensacola,  and  Key  West,  all 
the  others  having  been  seized.  Of  these,  Fort  Sumter  was 
vigorously  threatened,  the  Confederates  having  erected 
earthworks,  abundantly  mounted  with  artillery,  for  its 


BUCHANAN'S  ADMINISTRATION.  347 

reduction,  gathered  a  force  of  several  thousand  men,  and 
taken  possession  of  the  other  forts  in  the  harbor.  Mean 
while,  President  Buchanan  did  nothing  towards  its  defence 
other  than  to  send  an  unarmed  steamer,  the  Star  of  the 
West,  with  men  and  supplies.  This  was  fired  upon  and 
driven  back.  Thus  the  year  1861  drifted  on  toward  the 
critical  date  of  March  4,  and  the  coming  into  office  of  a 
Republican  administration. 

Preservation  of  the  Union. — The  problem  about  to  be 
solved  by  the  strong  hand  of  war  was  not  that  of  the  abo 
lition  of  slavery.  This,  the  instigating  cause  of  secession, 
had  fallen  into  the  background  before  a  greater  and  more 
vital  question,  that  of  the  preservation  of  the  Union. 
Should  there  be  a  United  States  or  a  group  of  two  or 
more  republics?  Should  our  strength  be  converted  into 
weakness,  our  unity  into  disunion,  our  harmony  into  hos 
tility  ?  This  was  the  problem  which  the  government  had 
to  face.  The  Union  must  and  shall  be  preserved !  Such 
was  the  sentiment  that  united  the  North  as  no  war  based 
on  the  slave  question  could  have  united  it.  President 
Lincoln  strongly  declared  himself  in  favor  of  this  purpose, 
and  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  when  it  came,  was  but 
an  incident  of  the  war,  a  measure  ol  military  expediency ; 
though  in  the  end  it  removed  the  cause  which  threatened 
the-  permanence  of  American  institutions. 

In  the  following  account  of  the  war  we  speak  of  North 
and  South  not  in  the  sense  of  section  arrayed  against  sec 
tion,  but  in  that  of  the  nation  fighting  for  its  existence,  the 
supporters  of  the  old  flag  combating  the  forces  of  dis 
union.  Fortunately  for  both,  the  Union  of  the  States  was 
preserved,  and  to-day  our  united  country  is  the  pride  of 
American  hearts,  alike  north  and  south,  east  and  west. 


PART   IX. 
THE  CIVIL  WAR. 


t.  ^Lincoln's  Hfcmtnistration, 

Lincoln  in  Office.— The  4th  of  March,  1861,  found  Presi^ 
dent  Lincoln.1  in  Washington,  prepared  to  take  the  oath  of 
office  and  enter  upon  the  difficult 
duties  to  which  he  had  been  called. 
So  dangerous  was  the  situation  thai 
it  was  not  deemed  safe  for  him  to 
travel  openly  to  the  capital,  and  he 
made  a  secret  night  journey  through 
Maryland,  a  State  which,  holding 
slaves,  had  many  sympathizers  with 
the  Confederacy. 

The  President's  Policy. — In  his 
inaugural  address  the  new  President 
indicated  clearly  his  proposed  policy. 
"  I  have  no  purpose,  directly  or  indirectly,"  he  said,  "  to  in 
terfere  with  the  institution  of  slavery  in  the  States  where  it 

1  Abraham  Lincoln  was  born  in  Kentucky  in  1809,  but  resided  dur 
ing  most  of  his  life  in  Illinois.  His  parents  were  very  poor  and  his 
education  was  meagre.  He  worked  at  boating,  store-keeping,  survey 
ing,  and  other  avocations,  diligently  studying  at  every  opportunity,  and 
finally  studied  law  in  his  spare  hours,  and  gained  admission  to  the  bar. 
As  a  lawyer  he  rose  to  distinction.  Entering  early  into  politics,  he  be 
came  a  member  of  the  Illinois  legislature  at  twenty-five,  and  in  1846 
was  elected  to  Congress,  where  he  served  one  term.  His  fame  as  a 
348 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN. 


LINCOLN'S   ADMINISTRATION.  349 

exists.  I  believe  I  have  no  lawful  right  to  do  so,  and  I 
have  no  inclination  to  do  so."  But  he  declared  also  that 
it  was  his  purpose  "  to  preserve,  protect,  and  defend"  the 
Union  of  the  States.  He  did  not  propose  to  begin  war, 
but  he  did  propose  to  retake  the  forts  and  other  national 
property  which  the  Confederacy  had  seized. 

Lincoln  Takes  Action. — To  avoid  war,  in  the  temper  of 
the  South,  was  impossible.  No  inclination  was  shown  to 
yield  the  national  property,  and  the  preparations  to  attack 
Fort  Sumter  continued.  For  a  month  Lincoln  remained 
silent.  Run  down  by  office-seekers,  and  perhaps  in  hope 
that  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  South  would  weaken,  he 
waited  and  studied  the  situation.  On  April  8  he  acted. 
The  governor  of  South  Carolina  was  notified  that  men  and 
provisions  would  be  sent  immediately  to  Fort  Sumter. 

The  Assault  on  Fort  Sumter. — On  hearing  this,  Jeffer 
son  Davis,1  President  of  the  Confederacy,  sent  orders  to 
General  Beauregard,  at  Charleston,  to  demand  that  Fort 
Sumter  should  be  evacuated.  If  not,  he  was  to  open  fire 

political  orator,  and  a  man  of  unusual  ability,  grew,  and  in  1858  he 
became  for  a  second  time  a  candidate  for  United  States  Senator,  his 
opponent  being  Stephen  A.  Douglas.  It  was  the  reputation  gained  in 
his  debate  with  Douglas  that  afterward  brought  him  the  nomination 
for  the  Presidency.  Lincoln  was  tall,  awkward  in  manner,  and  lacking 
in  social  culture,  but  possessed  of  unusual  common  sense  and  powers 
of  statesmanship.  He  was  re-elected  in  1864,  and  died  by  assassina 
tion  April  15,  1865. 

1  Jefferson  Davis  was  born  in  Kentucky  in  1808,  and  in  1828  grad 
uated  from  the  West  Point  Military  Academy.  He  was  elected  to  Con 
gress  from  Mississippi  in  1845,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
War,  and  in  1847  entered  the  United  States  Senate,  where  he  became 
a  strong  pro-slavery  member.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  under  Presi 
dent  Pierce,  entered  the  Senate  again  under  Buchanan,  and  withdrew 
from  that  body  January  21, 1861,  to  join  the  Confederacy.  He  survived 
the  war  for  many  years,  dying  in  1889. 


350  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

on  it.  His  Secretary  of  State,  Robert  Toombs,  opposed 
this  as  unwise,  saying,  "  The  firing  upon  that  fort  will  in 
augurate  a  civil  war  greater  than  any  the  world  has  yet 
seen.  ...  It  puts  us  in  the  wrong ;  it  is  fatal." 

But  the  orders  were  given  ;  Major  Anderson,  in  command 
at  the  fort,  refused  to  evacuate  ;  the  assault  began.  On  the 
morning  of  April  12,  1861,  the  first  shot  was  fired.  For 
thirty-four  hours,  from  nineteen  batteries,  shot  and  shell 
were  poured  upon  the  walls.  Then  Major  Anderson,  being 
nearly  out  of  ammunition  and  food  and  the  fort  in  a  state 
of  ruin,  lowered  his  flag  and  the  firing  ceased.  Not  a  man 
had  been  killed  on  either  side.  On  the  14th  he  left  the  fort 
with  his  men,  carrying  their  flag  with  them. 

Result  of  the  Bombardment  of  Sumter. — President 
Davis,  as  Toombs  had  predicted,  had  committed  the  coun 
try  decisively  to  war.  Hitherto  the  general  feeling  in  the 
North  had  favored  peaceful  measures.  There  had  been  a 
strong  desire  to  meet  the  South  half-way  in  its  demands. 
But  as  the  news  of  this  act  of  war  spread  through  the 
country  a  wide-spread  revulsion  of  feeling  took  place.  The 
United  States  flag  had  been  fired  upon !  The  stars  and 
stripes  had  been  dishonored  !  Excitement  and  indignation 
everywhere  prevailed.  A  warlike  passion  suddenly  blazed 
out.  On  all  sides  the  government  was  called  upon  to 
avenge  the  insult  to  the  flag. 

Troops  Called  Out. — The  President  did  not  wait  for  the 
public  demand.  The  moment  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Sum 
ter  reached  him  he  saw  clearly  that  war  could  not  be 
avoided,  and  on  April  15  he  issued  a  proclamation  for 
seventy-five  thousand  troops  to  serve  for  three  months. 
Few  people  then  foresaw  the  magnitude  of  the  coming  con 
flict,  and  it  was  thought  that  a  strong  show  of  military  force 
would  quickly  bring  the  threatened  war  to  an  end. 


LINCOLN'S  ADMINISTRATION.  351 

The  March  to  Washington. — The  response  to  the  Pres 
ident's  call  was  immediate  and  enthusiastic.  Four  times  as 
many  men  offered  their  services  as  were  called  for.  In  all 
the  States  of  the  North  men  hastened  to  the  ranks.  Hardly 
a  day  had  passed  before  regiments  were  on  their  way  to 
Washington.  Some  companies  from  Pennsylvania  reached 
there  within  two  days.  On  the  19th  of  April  the  Sixth 
Massachusetts  Regiment  marched  through  Baltimore. 

Here  they  were  attacked  by  a  mob  in  the  streets  with 
stones  and  pistol-shots.  The  soldiers  returned  the  fire. 
Several  men  fell  dead  on  each  side.  It  was  the  first  blood 
shed  in  the  war.  It  is  an  interesting  coincidence  that  this 
fight  took  place  on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Lexing 
ton,  when  the  first  blood  of  the  Revolution  was  shed. 

The  South  in  Arms. — The  enthusiasm  in  the  North  was 
no  greater  than  that  in  the  South.  The  firing  on  Sumter 
had  been  the  clarion  of  war  there  also,  and  thousands 
hastened  to  enlist.  The  armory  at  Harper's  Ferry  and  the 
navy-yard  at  Norfolk  were  seized  by  Virginia  militia,  that 
State  having  seceded  when  Lincoln  called  for  troops.  Ar 
kansas,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina  quickly  followed 
with  ordinances  of  secession.  On  April  17,  Davis  called  for 
privateers  to  attack  the  merchant  ships  of  the  North.  On 
the  19th  Lincoln  replied  by  proclaiming  a  blockade  of  the 
whole  Southern  coast,  and  announcing  that  privateers  would 
be  treated  as  pirates.  Only  a  week  had  elapsed  since  the 
firing  on  Sumter  began,  and  in  that  brief  interval  the  coun 
try  had  sprung  from  a  state  of  peace  into  one  of  war.  In 
North  and  South  alike  thousands  of  men  had  dropped  the 
tools  of  industry  and  seized  the  weapons  of  war,  and  mus 
tering  and  drilling  were  everywhere  the  order  of  the  day. 

Action  of  the  Border  States. — Four  more  States,  Dela 
ware,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  were  classed  with 


352  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

the  slave  States,  and  were  more  or  less  in  sympathy  with 
the  secessionists.  Scarcely  any  feeling  of  this  kind  existed 
in  Delaware,  while  Maryland  was  also  largely  Union  in  sen 
timent.  Kentucky  and  Missouri  were  stronger  in  Southern 
sympathy,  but  no  active  effort  was  made  except  in  Missouri 
to  carry  a  border  State  from  the  Union.  The  government 
of  Missouri  was  in  sympathy  with  the  Confederacy,  but 
failed  in  its  attempt  to  have  an  ordinance  of  secession 
passed  and  also  to  maintain  a  position  of  armed  neutrality. 
Thus  the  various  States  took  their  positions  for  the  coming 
conflict,  and  the  area  of  the  war  was  clearly  defined. 

2.  THE  NORTH  AND  THE  SOUTH. 

Population  of  the  Sections. — Before  proceeding  with  the 
story  of  the  Civil  War  it  is  important  to  contrast  the  two 
sections,  and  seek  to  deduce  their  chances  of  success  from 
their  comparative  strength  and  advantages.  As  regards 
population  the  North  was  much  the  stronger.  The  States 
which  adhered  to  the  Union  contained  twenty-two  million 
people,  against  nine  million  in  the  seceding  States,  of  whom 
three  million  five  hundred  thousand  were  slaves.  Thus  the 
North  outnumbered  the  South  in  white  men  four  to  one. 

Manufactures. — There  was  also  a  more  complete  system 
of  railroads  in  the  North,  and  with  it  all  the  manufactories 
of  locomotives,  cars,  and  rails.  In  manufacture  generally 
the  North  had  immensely  the  advantage.  The  Union  States 
were  capable  of  producing  everything  that  could  be  used  in 
the  war,  while  the  South  was  largely  destitute  of  facilities 
of  this  kind,  and  could  only  hope  to  obtain  supplies  from 
abroad. 

Agriculture. — As  regards  food  production  the  North  had 
also  the  advantage.  The  interests  of  the  South  were  agri 
cultural,  but  cotton  and  tobacco  were  the  leading  products, 


THE  NORTH  AND  THE  SOUTH.         353 

while  farming,  fishing,  and  herding  interests  supplied  the 
North  with  an  abundance  of  food. 

Shipping-  Interests. — The  North  was  also  immensely 
superior  in  its  shipping  interests.  It  traded  with  all  parts 
of  the  world,  and  could  readily  obtain  abundant  supplies, 
while  its  workshops  enabled  it  to  manufacture  at  home  all 
its  munitions  of  war.  The  navy  at  that  time  was  small,  and 
most  of  the  ships  of  war  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Confed 
eracy,  but  ship-yards  were  numerous  and  this  deficiency 
could  easily  be  overcome,  while  there  were  many  merchant 
ships  which  could  readily  be  converted  into  war  vessels. 

The  South  on  the  Defensive. — While  the  North  had 
these  signal  advantages,  the  South  was  not  devoid  of  advan 
tages.  It  possessed  an  immense  territory,  which  offered 
abundant  opportunities  for  successful  defensive  warfare. 
And  the  fact  that  the  Confederacy  was  fighting  on  its  own 
ground  greatly  reduced  the  disparity  in  men.  Much  larger 
armies  are  needed  to  invade  than  to  defend. 

Food  and  War  Supplies. — As  regards  the  lack  of  food 
that  might  be  largely  overcome  by  planting  grain  in  place 
of  cotton  and  tobacco.  And  though  munitions  of  war 
could  not  be  manufactured  to  any  important  extent,  the 
South  possessed  a  large  supply,  since  most  of  the  guns  and 
ammunition  of  the  country  had  been  within  the  borders  of 
the  seceding  States,  and  had  been  seized. 

The  Blockade. — The  South  possessed  also  a  source  of 
great  wealth  in  its  cotton  crop,  which  would  bring  all  the 
supplies  needed  if  it  could  be  got  abroad.  But  getting  it 
abroad  was  the  difficulty.  The  blockade  proclaimed  by 
President  Lincoln  was  soon  made  so  effective  that  it  became 
almost  impossible  to  get  the  cotton  upon  the  sea.  There 
were  vessels  called  "  blockade-runners"  that  occasionally 
got  into  and  out  of  port,  but  their  aid  to  the  South  was  not 

23 


354  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

great.  In  1860  the  cotton  sent  abroad  was  worth  more 
than  two  hundred  million  dollars.  From  1861  to  1865  this 
trade  almost  disappeared. 

Its  Effect. — This  stoppage  of  trade  caused  a  cotton  famine 
in  England.  Hundreds  of  mills  were  stopped,  and  thou 
sands  of  men  thrown  out  of  work.  Great  suffering  ensued. 
It  was  hoped  by  the  South  that  this  would  induce  Great 
Britain  to  come  to  its  aid.  But  it  did  not,  though  its  gov 
ernment  showed  hostile  feeling  to  the  North.  If  England 
had  recognized  Southern  independence,  France  would  likely 
have  done  the  same.  But  neither  did  so,  and  the  South 
had  to  fight  its  battles  alone. 

Army  Officers. — There  was  one  further  advantage  pos 
sessed  by  the  South, — many  of  the  best  and  most  experi 
enced  officers  in  the  army  were  Southern  men,  and  seceded 
with  their  States.  Among  these  were  Generals  Bobert  E. 
Lee,  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  Pierre  G.  T.  Beauregard,  and 
Thomas  J.  Jackson.  In  this  respect  the  secession  of  Vir 
ginia  was  a  serious  matter.  The  ablest  three  of  the  Con 
federate  generals,  Lee,  Johnston,  and  Jackson,  were  Vir 
ginians,  and  went  out  with  their  State. 

Virginia. — The  possession  of  Virginia  added  immensely 
to  the  strength  of  the  Confederacy.  Its  rivers  constituted  a 
series  of  strong  natural  defences  of  Bichmond,  which  was 
made  the  Confederate  capital  on  the  secession  of  the  State. 
And  the  possession  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley  by  Con 
federate  armies  kept  Washington  in  danger  of  sudden  cap 
ture,  and  opened  the  way  for  the  invasion  of  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania.  Had  Virginia  remained  in  the  Union,  the 
war  must  have  been  of  much  shorter  duration. 

Hopes  of  the  Southern  Leaders. — The  leaders  of  the 
South  had  four  hopes,  none  of  which  were  realized.  They 
hoped  that  the  North  would  not  fight.  They  hoped  that  all 


THE   OPENING   OF   THE   WAR.  355 

the  slave  States  would  join  them.  They  hoped  for  useful 
aid  from  the  Democrats  of  the  North.  They  hoped  for 
assistance  from  England  and  France.  In  all  these  hopes 
they  were  disappointed. 

Wealth  and  Credit. — Such  was  the  general  state  of  affairs 
between  North  and  South.  The  North  had  one  further 
advantage,  that  of  abundant  wealth  and  almost  unlimited 
credit.  In  this  respect  the  South  was  seriously  deficient, 
and  the  paper  money  which  it  issued  lost  its  value  as  rapidly 
as  did  the  Continental  currency  of  the  Revolution,  and  in 
the  end  became  worthless. 

The  Problem  of  the  "War. — As  will  be  seen,  the  North 
was  much  the  superior  in  numbers,  wealth,  and  general 
resources.  The  South  had  the  advantages  of  being  on  the 
defensive,  of  possessing  an  immense  territory,  well  adapted 
to  defence,  of  having  an  initial  supply  of  munitions  of  war 
and  a  number  of  able  and  skilled  command"ers.  But  these 
advantages  would  gradually  disappear  as  the  war  went  on, 
the  comparative  superiority  of  the  North  in  wealth  and 
resources  would  steadily  increase,  and  the  longer  the  contest 
continued  the  greater  would  grow  the  Northern  prospect  of 
success.  The  hope  of  the  South  lay  in  the  defeat  and  dis 
heartening  of  its  powerful  foe  by  greater  military  dash  and 
energy. 

3.  THE   OPENING   OF   THE   WAR. 

Strength  and  Position  of  Armies. — The  armies  of  the 
two  sides,  in  the  first  year  of  the  war,  did  not  differ  greatly 
in  numbers.  In  the  summer  of  1861  there  were  probably 
about  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  Union  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  Confederate  troops  in  the 
field.  These  were  gathered  on  the  border-line,  the  Union 
army  reaching  along  the  Potomac  from  Harper's  Ferry 


356 


THE   CIVIL   WAR. 


UNITED  STATES  FLAG. 


to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  thence  to  Fortress  Mon 
roe,  the  Confederate  forces  occupying  the  country  south 
of  the  Potomac.  There  were  opposing  forces  also 
in  West  Virginia  and  Missouri. 

The  Contest  for  Mis 
souri. — The  possession  of 
Missouri  was  of  importance 
to  both  sides.  The  gover 
nor  had  failed  in  his  effort 
to  have  that  State  secede, 
while  the  attempt  to  keep 
it  neutral  was  defeated  by 
Captain  Lyon,  in  command 
at  St.  Louis,  who  seized  the 
State  arsenal  and  routed 

the  hostile  militia.  A  Confederate  force  quickly  gathered 
and  a  fight  for  the  possession  of  the  State  began.  It  was  at 
first  favorable  to  the  Confederates,  who  won  battles  at  Car 
thage  and  Wilson's  Creek.  General  Lyon  was  killed  in  the 
latter.  In  September  the  Confeder 
ate  General  Price  captured  Lexington 
and  took  a  large  number  of  prisoners. 
General  Fremont,  of  California  fame, 
now  took  command,  and  drove  Price 
southward  to  Springfield.  He  was 
succeeded  by  General  Hunter,  who 
retreated  to  St.  Louis.  Finally  Gen 
eral  Halleck  took  command  and  forced 

Price  into  Arkansas.  This,  with  some  fighting  by  General 
Grant,  who  began  his  notable  career  in  this  quarter,  ended 
the  struggle  for  Missouri.  That  State  was  saved  for  the 
Union. 

The    Struggle  in  West  Virginia. — While  Virginia  had 


CONFEDERATE  FLAGS. 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  WAR.  357 

seceded  from  the  Union,  this  action  was  not  favored  by  all 
her  inhabitants.  The  region  west  of  the  mountains  was 
strongly  Union  in  sentiment,  and  early  in  the  war  a  struggle 
took  place  for  its  possession.  It  was  occupied  in  force  by 
the  Confederates,  but  they  were  defeated  in  several  engage 
ments  by  General  McClellan,  and  afterward  by  General 
Rosecrans.  These  Union  victories  ended  the  contest  in 
that  quarter.  The  Confederate  forces  were  withdrawn,  and 
the  region  was  left  in  Union  hands.  In  the  following  year 
the  Unionists  there  met  in  convention,  organized  a  State 
government,  and  applied  for  admission  to  the  Union  under 
the  title  of  West  Virginia.  The  new  State  was  admitted  in 
1863.  It  was  a  serious  loss  to  the  u  Old  Dominion,"  as  it 
comprised  nearly  two-fifths  of  its  territory  and  more  than 
one-fourth  of  its  population. 

The  Two  Armies. — It  was,  however,  on  the  Potomac,  in 
front  of  Washington,  that  the  first  battle  of  leading  im 
portance  took  place.  A  large  force  had  gathered  for  the 
defence  of  the  capital,  which  was  threatened  by  General 
Beauregard,  with  a  strong  Southern  army.  At  Winchester, 
in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  was  another  Confederate  army, 
under  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  which  was  confronted 
by  a  Union  force,  under  General  Robert  Patterson,  a  veteran 
of  the  war  of  1812.  Such  was  the  situation  in  July,  1861. 

Battle  of  Bull  Run. — President  Lincoln,  in  the  first  flush 
of  hopefulness,  had  called  out  volunteers  for  three  months. 
It  was  now  evident  that  this  had  been  an  error.  The  three 
months  had  nearly  ended  and  neither  side  was  ready  for 
battle.  But  the  people  of  the  North  were  impatient.  They 
looked  for  a  speedy  end  of  the  war,  and  the  cry  of  "  On  to 
Richmond  !"  became  so  strong  that  the  military  authorities 
decided  that  something  must  be  done. 

On  July  1G,  General  McDowell  crossed  into  Virginia,  with 


358  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

a  force  of  over  thirty  thousand  men,  and  marched  toward 
Bull  Run,1  where  General  Beauregard  lay  in  a  strong  posi 
tion,  with  a  force  considerably  less  than  that  of  his  opponent. 
McDowell  hoped  to  overwhelm  Beauregard  by  superior 
strength,  trusting  to  Patterson  to  prevent  Johnston  from 
reinforcing  him. 

He  would  probably  have  succeeded  had  not  Johnston 
eluded  Patterson  and  sent  strong  reinforcements  from  Win 
chester  to  Bull  Run.  The  battle  took  place  on  the  21st  and 
was  sharply  contested.  The  Confederates  were  driven  back 
until  rallied  by  General  T.  J.  Jackson,  who  here  won  his 
title  of  "  Stonewall  Jackson."  During  this  critical  period 
fresh  troops  arrived  from  Winchester,  under  Kirby  Smith, 
and  poured  in  a  flank  fire  on  the  Union  lines.  This  was 
more  than  raw  troops  could  endure.  A  hasty  retreat  began, 
which  in  time  became  a  rout,  the  whole  army  flying  in 
panic  disorder.  It  might  have  proved  disastrous  had  Beau- 
regard  been  able  to  follow  up  his  victory.  But  his  troops, 
too,  were  raw,  and  had  been  too  sharply  handled  to  be  in 
condition  for  pursuit. 

The  Effect  of  Bull  Run. — The  result  of  this  first  impor 
tant  battle  was  momentous.  It  filled  the  South  with  an 
exaggerated  hopefulness,  which  did  its  cause  more  harm 
than  good.  It  taught  the  North  that  a  serious  error  had 
been  made,  and  that  this  was  to  be  no  "  ninety  days'  cam 
paign."  Dismay  and  chagrin  were  followed  by  determina 
tion.  It  was  evident  that  the  struggle  would  be  a  desperate 
one.  Congress  hastened  to  vote  a  war  appropriation  of 
five  hundred  million  dollars,  and  called  out  an  army  of  five 
hundred  thousand  men,  to  be  enlisted  for  three  years. 


1  Bull  Run  is  a  small  stream  about  twenty-seven  miles  from  Alex 
andria,  and  near  Manassas  Junction  on  the  railroads  leading  south. 


THE  OPENING  OF  THE  WAR.  359 

General  Scott,  the  aged  commander-in-chief,  withdrew,  and 
General  George  B.  McClellan,  whose  successful  campaign 
in  West  Virginia  had  won  him  reputation,  was  placed  in 
command  of  all  the  armies  of  the  United  States. 

The  Blockade. — While  these  events  were  taking  place 
on  land,  efforts  were  making  to  render  effective  the  blockade 
of  the  Southern  ports.  At  the  opening  of  the  war  the 
United  States  was  almost  destitute  of  ships.  But  a  navy 
was  built  or  leased  with  such  speed  that  by  the  end  of  the 
year  there  were  two  hundred  and  sixty-four  ships  in  com 
mission.  These  did  some  efficient  work.  Hatteras  Inlet, 
North  Carolina,  was  taken  by  one  expedition,  Port  Royal, 
South  Carolina,  by  another.  Some  islands  on  the  coast 
were  also  taken.  These  places  became  depots  of  sup 
plies  for  the  navy,  and  aided  greatly  in  maintaining  the 
blockade. 

The  Mason  and  Slidell  Affair. — Near  the  end  of  1861 
an  event  of  international  importance  took  place.  The  Con 
federate  States,  anxious  for  aid  from  Europe,  sent  out 
envoys  who  succeeded  in  reaching  Havana.  There  they 
took  passage  for  England  on  the  British  steamer  Trent. 
Captain  Wilkes,  of  the  steamer  San  Jacinto,  followed  the 
Trent,  stopped  her  near  the  Bahamas,  and  took  from  her 
the  two  Confederate  envoys,  James  M.  Mason  and  John 
Slidell.  They  were  taken  to  Boston  and  confined  in  Fort 
Warren. 

This  act  was  applauded  in  the  North,  and  Congress 
passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Captain  Wilkes.  But  England 
did  not  like  to  have  the."  right  of  search"  exercised  toward 
her.  She  bluntly  demanded  that  the  commissioners  should 
be  given  up,  and,  to  enforce  her  words,  sent  troops  and  war- 
supplies  to  Canada. 

The    Envoys    Given    Up. — The    threatened   war   was 


360  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

averted  by  the  action  of  the  President  and  Secretary  of 
State,  who  declared  that  the  act  was  not  in  accordance  with 
the  previous  policy  of  this  government  regarding  the  right 
of  search,  and  ordered  the  release  of  the  prisoners.  But  a 
hostile  feeling  against  Great  Britain  prevailed,  which  grew 
more  bitter  when  Confederate  cruisers  were  allowed  to  be 
built  in  English  ship-yards  and  to  slip  out  of  English  ports. 
The  sailing  of  the  Alabama,  a  privateer  which  did  immense 
damage  to  American  commerce,  increased  this  sentiment 
of  hostility.  The  British  government  was  given  plainly  to 
understand  that  the  United  States  would  not  endure  any 
more  of  this.  As  a  result,  no  more  Confederate  cruisers 
were  allowed  to  leave  British  ports. 

The  Work  of  the  Merrimac. — While  the  United  States 
was  increasing  its  fleet  and  the  Confederate  States  pur 
chasing  cruisers  abroad,  the  latter  had  not  been  idle  at 
home.  In  the  navy-yard  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  which  had 
been  seized  by  Confederate  forces,  was  a  United  States 
frigate,  the  Merrimac.  This  had  been  sunk,  but  workmen 
had  succeeded  in  raising  it,  and  had  cut  down  the  deck 
and  given  it  a  sloping  roof,  heavily  plated  with  iron.  An 
iron  prow  had  been  added,  for  the  purpose  of  ramming 
hostile  craft.  The  Merrimac  was  destined  to  make  a 
revolution  in  naval  warfare.  Vessels  had  been  covered 
with  iron  before,  but  they  had  not  been  tried  in  actual 
war. 

On  March  8,  1862,  this  formidable  vessel  steamed  into 
Hampton  Roads.  The  United  States  had  there  a  fleet  of 
five  wooden  vessels,  large  and  powerful,  but,  as  was  proved, 
useless  for  combat  with  their  iron-clad  foe.  They  poured 
broadsides  upon  her,  but  their  shot  glanced  off  from  her 
iron  sides  "  like  so  many  peas."  Moving  resistlessly  on,  the 
Merrimac  struck  the  Cumberland  with  her  terrible  beak, 


THE   OPENING  OF  THE  WAR.  361 

and  she  sank  with  all  on  board.1  The  Congress  was  driven 
ashore  and  forced  to  surrender.  It  was  now  near  night, 
and  the  fate  of  the  other  three  ships  was  left  until  the  next 
day. 

Never  had  there  been  such  an  event  in  naval  warfare. 
Consternation  filled  the  North  at  news  of  this  havoc. 
What  was  to  save  our  ports  from  this  fearful  foe?  She 
might  steam  into  New  York  harbor  and  bombard  the  city. 
No  one  could  say  what  havoc  she  might  perform. 

The  Coming  of  the  Monitor. — But  the  government  had 
been  preparing  for  her.  It  was  well  known  when  she 
might  be  expected,  and  an  ironclad  on  a  new  plan,  the 
invention  of  Captain  John  Ericsson,  the  eminent  Swedish 
engineer,  had  rapidly  been  built.  This  had  a  low,  flat,  iron 
clad  deck,  rising  just  above  the  water.  In  its  centre  was  a 
strong  tower,  heavily  plated  with  iron,  and  capable  of  re 
volving.  It  carried  two  very  heavy  guns.  The  appearance 
of  this  strange  craft  was  so  peculiar  that  it  gained  the  title 
of  "  a  cheese-box  on  a  raft." 

By  vigorous  efforts  the  new  vessel  was  completed  in 
time  to  meet  the  Merrimac  before  more  destruction  could 
be  done.  The  Monitor,  as  she  was  named,  steamed  into 
Hampton  Roads  during  the  night  of  March  8,  and  was 
ready  to  meet  the  Merrimac  at  the  dawn  of  the  next  day. 

The  Battle  of  the  Ironclads. — Early  in  the  following 
day  the  Merrimac  steamed  toward  the  Minnesota,  one  of 
the  wooden  fleet.  Suddenly  she  found  the  Monitor  in  her 
way,  hurling  at  her  such  balls  as  a  naval  vessel  had  never 
before  sent.  The  Monitor's  two  guns  were  of  enormous 


1  As  the  Cumberland  went  down  the  crew  continued  to  work  her 
guns  until  she  vanished  beneath  the  water.  Her  flag  was  not  struck, 
but  continued  to  float  from  the  mast-head  after  she  had  gone  down. 


362 


THE   CIVIL  WAR. 


size,  while  the  balls  of  the  Merrimac  glanced  harmlessly 
from  her  deck. 

For  four  hours  that  new  and  strange  naval  duel  went  on. 
Time  after  time  the  Merrimac  sought  to  sink  the  Monitor 
with  her  iron  beak,  but  her  dwarf-like  antagonist  glided 


BATTLE  OF  THE  MONITOR  AND  MERRIMAC. 

away  unharmed.  Her  broadsides  were  of  as  little  use, 
while  the  huge  balls  of  the  Monitor  continued  to  batter  her 
sides  with  terrible  blows. 

In  the  end  the  Merrimac  withdrew,  baffled  though  not 
disabled,  and  made  her  way  back  into  Norfolk  harbor. 
She  never  left  it  again.  Repairs  were  necessary,  and 
before  they  were  completed  the  Confederates  abandoned 
Norfolk  and  destroyed  their  powerful  iron-clad  champion. 
That  one  battle  changed  the  conditions  of  naval  warfare 
throughout  the  world.  With  it  the  day  of  the  wooden  war- 
vessel  came  to  an  end. 


THE  WAR   IN   KENTUCKY   AND  TENNESSEE. 


363 


4.  THE   WAR   IN   KENTUCKY   AND   TENNESSEE. 

Results  of  the  War  in  1861. — During  the  first  year  of 
the  Civil  War  there  had  been  no  well-defined  plan.  The 
most  important  engagement  had 
been  won  by  the  Confederate  forces, 
yet  the  advantage  lay  with  the 
North.  Mis 
souri  had 
been  saved 


BATTLE-FIELDS  OF  KENTUCKY  AND  TENNESSEE. 

and  West  Virginia  gained  for  the  Union.  Fort  Pickens  and 
Fort  Monroe,  on  the  coast,  had  been  secured  and  other 
points  taken.  The  defeat  at  Bull  Run  had  wakened  the 
North  from  its  dream  of  an  easy  conquest  and  roused  it  to 
the  most  strenuous  exertions.  The  two  sides  had  been 
getting  a  grasp  of  the  situation.  They  now  first  began  to 
see  the  magnitude  of  the  task  before  them. 

Plans  for  1862.— The   campaign  of  1862  was  entered 
upon  by  the  North  with  definite  objects  in  view. 


364  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

One  of  these  was  the  capture  of  Richmond. 

A  second  was  the  rescue  of  Kentucky  from  its  invaders 
and  the  invasion  of  Tennessee. 

A  third  was  the  opening  and  control  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  cutting  off  of  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and  Texas  from 
the  rest  of  the  Confederacy. 

A  fourth  was  an  efficient  blockade  of  the  Southern  ports. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  all  of  these,  except  the  first,  was 
in  some  measure  accomplished. 

The  Confederates  in  Kentucky. — In  September,  1861, 
General  Polk  entered  Kentucky  with  a  force  of  fifteen  thou 
sand  men,  and  took  position  at  Columbus,  whence  he 
threatened  Paducah,  an  important  point  at  the  junction  of 
the  Tennessee  River  with  the  Ohio.  Another  Confederate 
army,  under  General  Zollicoffer,  invaded  Kentucky  in  the 
southeast.  These  invasions  had  one  unexpected  result. 
The  legislature,  which  was  wavering,  at  once  voted,  by  a 
heavy  majority,  to  remain  in  the  Union. 

General  Grant's  Movements. — General  Ulysses  S.  Grant,1 
the  coming  leader  of  the  Union  armies,  had  been  defeated 
in  his  first  engagement  at  Belmont,  Missouri.  Immediately 
afterward  he  crossed  to  Kentucky  and  took  possession  of 

1  General  Grant  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1822.  He  was  named  Hiram 
Ulysses,  but  on  his  entry  to  West  Point  his  name  was  wrongly  regis 
tered,  he  being  styled  Ulysses  Simpson,  the  latter  his  mother's  family 
name.  As  he  could  not  get  the  mistake  remedied,  he  accepted  the 
new  name.  His  first  service  was  in  the  Mexican  War,  where  he  be 
haved  gallantly  and  gained  promotion.  He  then  retired  to  private 
business  life,  in  which  he  was  not  very  successful.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed  captain  of  a  company  of  volunteers, 
and  was  soon  after  made  colonel  of  the  Twenty-first  Illinois  Regiment 
Shortly  afterward  he  was  commissioned  brigadier-general,  and  was 
made  major-general  for  his  capture  of  Fort  Donelson.  The  remainder 
of  his  biography  is  part  of  the  history  of  the  war  and  the  country. 


THE  WAR   IN   KENTUCKY   AND  TENNESSEE.  365 

Paducah,  thus  forestalling  Polk,  and  getting  control  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland  Rivers,  two  large 
and  important  streams.  An  important  problem  now  lay 
before  the  Union  leaders.  The  Confederates  had  built 
forts  on  these  two  streams,  named  Fort  Henry  and  Fort 
Donelson,  within  the  borders  of  Tennessee.  They  had 
also  fortified  Island  No.  10,  on  the  Mississippi  south  of 
Columbus. 

Capture  of  Ports  Henry  and  Donelson. — Early  in  Feb 
ruary,  1862,  General  Grant  advanced  against  Fort  Henry, 
Commodore  Foote,  with  a  flotilla  of  iron-clad  gun-boats, 
moving  up  the  Tennessee  to  assist  him.  On  the  6th  the 
place  was  attacked  by  the  fleet.  An  hour's  bombardment 
sufficed.  The  fort  surrendered,  and  the  garrison  fled  to 
Fort  Donelson  before  Grant  and  his  army  had  arrived. 

Grant  now  marched  upon  Fort  Donelson,  while  the  fleet 
steamed  back  to  the  Ohio  and  came  up  the  Cumberland 
to  his  aid.  This  fort  was  more  vigorously  defended.  The 
fight  continued  for  three  days,  the  fleet  was  repulsed,  and 
its  commodore  seriously  wounded.  The  Confederates  now 
attempted  to  cut  their  way  through  Grant's  investing  lines, 
but  were  driven  back  and  part  of  their  works  taken.  On 
February  16  an  assault  was  about  to  be  made  in  force,  when 
the  fort  surrendered,  with  its  garrison  of  fifteen  thousand 
men.1  This  was  the  first  signal  Federal  victory  of  the  war. 
It  established  the  Union  army  firmly  in  Tennessee. 


1  The  commander  of  the  fort  wrote  to  General  Grant,  asking  what 
terms  could  be  made.  The  reply  was,  "  No  terms  except  an  uncondi 
tional  and  immediate  surrender  can  be  accepted.  I  propose  to  move 
immediately  upon  your  works."  This  answer  did  much  to  enhance 
Grant's  reputation.  His  initials,  U.  S.,  were  said  to  stand  for  "  Uncon 
ditional  Surrender."  From  this  time  forward  he  was  one  of  the  leading 
figures  in  the  war. 


366  THE   CIVIL  WAR. 

Island  No.  10. — One  important  effect  of  Grant's  victory 
was  to  compel  General  Polk  to  evacuate  Columbus,  a  post 
which  had  been  claimed  to  be  impregnable.  The  garrison 
fell  back  to  the  fortifications  at  Island  No.  10,  which  soon 
after  were  attacked  by  Commodore  Foote  with  his  fleet  of 
gun-boats.  After  a  three  weeks'  bombardment,  General 
Pope  crossed  the  river,  took  the  batteries  on  the  bank,  and 
prepared  to  attack  those  on  the  island.1  Finding  their 
position  untenable,  the  garrison,  seven  thousand  strong, 
surrendered  on  April  8. 

Buell's  Advance. — Grant's  army  was  afterward  known 
as  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  General  Buell,  with  what 
became  known  as  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  advanced 
into  middle  Kentucky,  where  his  left  wing,  under  General 
Thomas,  defeated  the  Confederates  near  Mill  Spring  in  Jan 
uary,  1862.  Soon  afterward  the  fortified  post  at  Bowling 
Green  was  evacuated  and  the  Confederate  invasion  of  Ken 
tucky  came  to  an  end. 

Occupation  of  Tennessee. — Though  the  State  of  Ten 
nessee  had  seceded,  a  large  section  of  it  remained  strongly 
Unionist  in  sentiment.  This  was  the  mountain  district  in 
the  east,  in  which  there  had  been  found  little  use  for  slaves. 
The  Union  successes  above  mentioned  soon  led  to  an  occu 
pation  of  the  State.  General  Buell  advanced  and  occupied 
Nashville,  while  the  Confederates  fell  back  to  Corinth,  an 
important  railroad  centre  in  the  north  of  Mississippi.  Here 

1  Pope,  with  his  army,  was  on  the  Missouri  side  of  the  river.  He 
could  not  cross  in  face  of  the  Confederate  batteries,  so  a  canal  was  dug 
twelve  miles  long  across  a  bend  in  the  river.  Part  of  this  was  through 
heavy  timber,  yet  the  work  was  finished  in  nineteen  days.  Through 
this  canal  light-draught  steamboats  were  taken  below  the  batteries. 
The  two  largest  gun-boats  ran  the  batteries  and  protected  Pope's  cross 
ing,  which  was  accomplished  in  the  midst  of  a  deluging  storm  of  rain. 


THE  WAR  IN   KENTUCKY   AND  TENNESSEE.  367 

strong  forces  were  collected,  under  Generals  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston  and  Beauregard.  Grant  took  part  in  the  Union 
advance,  and  moved  his  army  to  Pittsburg:  Landing,  on  the 
Tennessee,  a  short  distance  north  of  Corinth.  Here 'he 
awaited  the  arrival  of  Buell  with  reinforcements. 

The  Battle  of  Shiloh. — Events  proved  that  Grant  had 
taken  a  dangerous  position.  On  April  6,  Johnston  attacked 
him  in  force,  hoping  to  defeat  him  before  Buell  could  arrive. 
At  break  of  day  the  Confederate  forces  suddenly  marched 
out  of  the  woods  and  fell  upon  the  Union  lines  with  all  the 
Southern  dash  and  vigor.  The  Federal  forces,  though  hold 
ing  their  ground  with  stern  determination,  were  gradually 
pushed  back.  For  twelve  hours  the  fight  continued.  Then 
Grant  gathered  the  remnants  of  his  regiments  on  the  river 
bank  for  a  final  stand.  Here  the  tide  of  battle  was  stayed, 
the  gun-boats  in  the  stream  aiding  the  artillery  fire  of  the 
army.  It  was  now  nightfall,  and  the  advance  of  BuelPs 
army  had  reached  the  opposite  side  of  the  stream.  The 
Confederates  fell  back  with  the  fruits  of  their  success,  three 
thousand  prisoners,  thirty  flags,  and  the  stores  taken  in  the 
Union  camp.  But  they  had  met  with  a  severe  loss  in 
the  death  of  General  Johnston,  one  of  their  ablest  com 
manders. 

On  the  next  day,  April  7,  the  tide  of  battle  turned.  With 
Buell's  fresh  troops  Grant  pushed  back  the  battle-weary 
foe,  and  after  six  hours'  desperate  fighting  the  Confederates 
were  obliged  to  retreat.  They  withdrew  to  the  intrench- 
ments  at  Corinth. 

In  this  great  battle  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  men 
were  engaged,  and  more  than  twenty  thousand  were  killed 
and  wounded.  It  was  one  of  the  great  conflicts  of  the  war, 
and  fully  proved  the  valor  and  determination  of  the  com 
batants  on  both  sides.  General  Halleck,  who  had  been 


368  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the  West,  slowly  followed 
the  Confederates,  and  on  May  30,  Beauregard,  finding  him 
self  outnumbered,  evacuated  Corinth.  Thus  the  Unionists 
established  themselves  in  Mississippi. 

Memphis  Taken. — The  capture  of  Island  No.  10  took 
place  on  the  day  succeeding  the  battle  of  Shiloh.  The  Union 
gun-boats  quickly  made  their  way  farther  down  the  river, 
and  on  May  10  met  and  defeated  the  Confederate  iron-clad 
fleet.  On  the  evacuation  of  Corinth,  Fort  Pillow,  a  strong 
hold  lower  down  the  stream,  was  abandoned,  and  the  gun 
boat  fleet  steamed  south  to  Memphis,  where  the  Confederate 
flotilla  was  destroyed  and  the  city  seized. 

Capture  of  New  Orleans. — The  effort  to  gain  control  of 
the  Mississippi  was  not  confined  to  operations  in  the  north. 
An  attack  was  made  from  the  south  also.  In  April,  1862, 
shortly  after  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  a  powerful  Union  fleet, 
under  Farragut  and  Porter,  entered  the  mouth  of  the  Mis 
sissippi,  and  fought  its  way  vigorously  upward.  The  river 
was  defended  with  strong  forts,  fire-rafts,  iron  chains,  and 
an  iron-clad  fleet.  After  a  heavy  bombardment,  Farragut 
made  a  night  run  past  the  forts,  through  a  fearful  storm  of 
shot  and  shell,  attacked  and  destroyed  most  of  the  Confed 
erate  fleet,  and  moved  triumphantly  up  to  New  Orleans, 
which  was  forced  to  surrender.1  General  Benjamin  F.  But 
ler,  in  command  of  the  land  forces,  took  possession  of  it  on 


1  Great  quantities  of  cotton,  and  numbers  of  ships  and  steamers, 
were  burned  at  New  Orleans  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  Federals.  Fifteen  thousand  bales  of  cotton,  worth  one  million  five 
hundred  thousand  dollars,  were  consumed.  The  docks  were  burned, 
and  about  a  dozen  river  steamers,  as  many  ships,  several  gun-boats,  a 
great  floating  battery,  and  the  immense  ram  Mississippi  were  all  given 
to  the  flames.  They  floated  down  the  river  wrapped  in  fire  and  threat 
ening  destruction  to  Farragut's  fleet. 


THE  WAR   IN  KENTUCKY  AND  TENNESSEE.  369 

April  28.  Farragut  now  steamed  up  the  river  to  Memphis, 
running  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg.1 

Operations  on  the  Coast. — The  fleet  had  been  equally 
active  on  the  coast.  General  Burnside  captured  Roanoke 
Island,  and  took  New-Bern  and  other  ports  in  North  Caro 
lina.  Various  ports  in  Florida  and  Georgia  were  taken,  and 
Fort  Pulaski,  which  defended  the  port  of  Savannah,  was 
captured.  By  the  end  of  1862  every  important  point  on 
the  coast  of  the  Confederacy,  except  the  cities  of  Charleston, 
Savannah,  Mobile,  and  Wilmington,  was  held  by  the  Federal 
armies,  and  the  blockade  was  made  very  largely  effective. 

The  Situation  in  the  West. — It  will  be  seen  that,  early 
in  the  year  1862,  the  Union  forces  had  made  great  progress 
in  carrying  out  the  plans  of  the  government.  The  Confed 
eracy  had  lost  nearly  all  the  Mississippi,  though  they  held 
the  powerful  post  of  Vicksburg  and  some  minor  fortified 
points.  The  blockade  of  the  coast  had  made  great  prog 
ress.  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  were  held  by  the  Federal 
armies,  and  the  seat  of  war  in  the  West  had  been  trans 
ferred  to  the  Gulf  States.  The  progress  in  this  quarter 
had  been  great ;  but  there  was  now  to  be  a  change  in  the 
situation. 

Bragg's  Advance. — In  the  late  summer  of  1862,  General 
Bragg,  with  a  strong  army,  left  Chattanooga,  a  Confederate 


1  David  G.  Farragut  was  born  in  Tennessee  in  1801,  and  entered  the 
navy  in  1812  as  a  midshipman,  serving  through  the  war  of  that  period. 
He  continued  in  the  service,  passing  through  various  grades,  and  was 
captain  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  He  was  made  rear-admiral 
after  his  famous  victory  at  New  Orleans.  At  Mobile  he  won  additional 
fame  by  daringly  taking  a  position  in  the  rigging  of  his  vessel  that  he 
might  see  every  move  of  the  battle,  heedless  of  the  peril  of  this  exposed 
situation.  He  was  made  vice-admiral  in  1864,  and  admiral  in  1866, 
these  two  grades  being  created  expressly  for  him.  He  died  in  1870. 

24  , 


370  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

stronghold  on  the  southeastern  border  of  Tennessee,  and 
made  a  rapid  march  northward  toward  Louisville,  on  the 
Ohio  River.  General  Buell,  learning  his  purpose,  marched 
with  all  haste  to  prevent  it,  and  reached  Louisville  a  day 
in  advance.  Bragg  now  fell  back,  Buell  following  with  an 
army  reinforced  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  thousand 
men.  A  battle  was  fought  at  Perryville  on  October  8. 
During  the  following  night  Bragg  retreated  and  escaped 
pursuit. 

luka  and  Corinth. — Meanwhile,  Rosecrans,  in  command 
at  Corinth,  was  threatened  by  a  strong  Confederate  force. 
Two  battles  were  fought,  one  at  luka  on  September  19,  and 
one  at  Corinth  on  October  3  and  4.  The  Confederates  fought 
with  great  courage,  but  were  driven  back,  and  lost  heavily 
during  a  pursuit  of  forty  miles. 

Battle  of  Murfreesboro'. — On  the  last  day  of  the  year 
was  fought  one  of  its  most  desperate  battles.  Bragg  was 
attacked  in  winter  quarters  at  Murfreesboro',  Tennessee,  by 
Rosecrans,  who  had  replaced  Buell  in  command.  Bragg 
fought  with  fiery  energy,  and  for  a  time  had  the  best  of 
the  battle,  but  in  the  end  was  driven  back.  He  made  a 
second  attack  two  days  afterward,  but  was  again  unsuccess 
ful.  He  now  retreated.  The  battle  was  a  bloody  one,  more 
than  twenty  thousand  men  being  killed  or  wounded.  It  was 
the  last  Confederate  attempt  to  regain  Kentucky. 

Sherman  Repulsed. — While  these  events  were  taking 
place,  Grant  had  projected  an  expedition  against  Vicksburg. 
He  proposed  to  advance  along  the  Mississippi  Central  Rail 
road,  while  Sherman  was  to  march  down  the  river,  assisted 
by  the  gun-boats.  The  effort  failed.  Van  Dorn  destroyed 
Grant's  depot  of  supplies  at  Holly  Springs  and  prevented 
his  movement.  Sherman  attacked  the  bluffs  north  of  the 
town  on  December  29,  but  was  defeated  with  heavy  loss. 


THE   EAST   IN   1862.  371 

Battle  of  Pea  Ridge. — During  1862  two  warlike  events 
took  place  west  of  the  Mississippi.  One  of  these  was  a 
battle  at  Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas.  General  Van  Dorn,  with 
twenty  thousand  troops,  was  met  and  totally  defeated  by 
General  Curtis  at  the  head  of  the  Union  forces.  This  vir 
tually  ended  the  war  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas.1 

The  Sioux  Indian  Outbreak.— In  the  summer  of  1862  an 
outbreak  of  Sioux  Indians  took  place.  They  had  long  com 
plained  of  ill  treatment  by  the  white  settlers  and  government 
officials,  and  took  advantage  of  the  war  to  invade  Minnesota 
and  Iowa,  where  they  massacred  nearly  a  thousand  men, 
women,  and  children.  They  were  quickly  suppressed,  and 
several  of  their  leaders  were  hanged  for  murder. 

5.    THE  EAST  IN  1862. 

Affairs  in  Virginia. — It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been 
said  that  the  Union  armies  made  great  progress  in  the 
West  during  1862.  The  opposite  was  the  case  in  Virginia. 
Here  the  Confederates  won  a  number  of  important  battles, 
and  the  attempt  to  capture  Richmond  ended  in  failure  and 
disaster.  After  the  defeat  at  Rull  Run,  months  passed 
without  a  movement  being  made.  During  this  period  Gen 
eral  McClellan,  the  new  commander-in-chief,  was  engaged 
in  a  careful  drilling  of  the  army,  seeking  to  make  soldiers 
out  of  untrained  recruits.  He  was  not  ready  to  advance 
until  the  spring  of  1862.  Then  the  army  was  put  in  march 
for  Richmond. 

1  Several  thousands  of  Indians  from  the  Indian  Territory  had  joined 
the  Confederate  forces  in  Arkansas,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Pea 
Ridge.  They  proved  of  little  use,  the  roar  of  the  artillery,  the  sight 
of  guns  that  ran  round  on  wheels,  and  the  fall  of  trees  behind  which 
they  took  shelter,  reducing  them  to  a  state  of  panic.  They  were  not 
used  to  that  kind  of  war. 


372 


THE   CIVIL  WAR. 


McClellan's  Advance. — The  overland  route  was  not 
deemed  advisable  after  the  experience  at  Bull  Run,  so  the 
advance  was  made  by  water.  McClellan  wished  to  take 
the  James  River  route,  but  as  that  would  have  left  Wash- 


MCCLELLAN'S  CAMPAIGN.      YORKTOWN  TO  RICHMOND. 

ington  in  danger  of  capture  by  a  sudden  dash,  he  took  the 
York  River  route  instead,  while  McDowell  led  an  army 
overland  toward  Richmond. 

The  Siege  of  Yorktown. — Yorktown,  the  scene  of  the 
final  event  of  the  Revolution,  was  that  of  the  first  event  in 
this  march.  It  was  strongly  fortified,  and  General  Magruder, 
with  fifteen  thousand  men,  detained  McClellan's  forces  here 
for  a  month.  At  length,  just  as  heavy  siege  guns  were  in 
place  and  about  to  open  fire,  Magruder  withdrew,  having 
well  performed  his  task  of  checking  the  Union  advance. 

The  Fight  at  Williamsburg'. — Magruder  fell  back  to 
Williamsburg,  ten  miles  distant,  where  works  had  been 
built.  He  was  sharply  pursued,  and  a  fight  took  place  there 
on  May  5.  Both  sides  claimed  the  victory,  but  Magruder 


THE   EAST  IN   1862.  373 

retreated  during  the  night,  and  the  pursuit  was  continued 
until  Richmond  was  near  at  hand. 

A  Panic  at  Richmond. — On  the  evacuation  of  Yorktown, 
Norfolk  was  abandoned,  the  navy-yard  burned,  and  the 
famous  ironclad  Merrimac  blown  up. 
The  Monitor  and  other  vessels  now 
ascended  James  River  until  within 
eight  miles  of  Richmond.  The  army 
was  only  seven  miles  from  the  city. 
A  panic  ensued.  The  Confederate 
Congress  adjourned,  and  the  people 
of  the  city  were  in  a  state  of  conster- 

natl°n'  GEORGE  B 'MCCLELLAN. 

"Waiting1  for  Reinforcements. — An 

immediate  attack  might  perhaps  have  taken  Richmond,  but 
it  was  not  made.  McClellan  dispersed  a  Confederate  force 
in  his  rear,  and  then  waited  for  McDowell,  who  was  ap 
proaching  overland.  This  reinforcement  did  not  reach  him. 
Its  coming  was  prevented  by  a  skilful  movement  of  the 
Confederate  forces,  General  Johnston  having  sent  his  able 
subordinate,  Thomas  J.  Jackson, — already  best  known  as 
Stonewall  Jackson,1 — with  a  strong  force  down  the  Shenan- 
doah  Valley  to  threaten  Washington. 

In  the  Shenandoah  Valley. — Jackson's  march  was  rapid 
and  effective.     The  Union  forces   in  the  valley  retreated 


1  Thomas  Jonathan  Jackson — who  gained  his  famous  nickname  of 
"  Stonewall"  from  a  remark  made  during  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
"  There's  Jackson  standing  like  a  stone  wall" — was  born  in  Virginia  in 
1824.  He  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1846,  served  in  the  Mexican 
War,  and  afterward  became  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  at  Lexing 
ton,  Virginia.  He  entered  the  Civil  War  as  a  colonel,  and  captured  the 
arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  May,  1861.  As  a  subordinate  to  General 
Lee  he  proved  himself  a  soldier  of  remarkable  ability. 


374  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

hastily  before  him  and  crossed  the  Potomac.  Washington 
was  in  a  state  of  panic.  No  one  knew  how  many  men 
Jackson  had.  Troops  were  hurried  to  the  Potomac.  Banks 
and  Fremont  were  ordered  to  cross  that  stream,  and  Mc 
Dowell  was  stopped  in  his  march  toward  Richmond  and 
ordered  from  Fredericksburg  to  the  valley.  It  was  now 
Jackson's  turn  to  retreat  with  all  haste,  for  his  foes  were 
closing  in  and  he  was  in  serious  danger.  He  did  so,  burn 
ing  the  bridges  behind  him,  and  made  good  his  escape. 
He  had  done  his  work  well,  threatened  Washington,  pre 
vented  McDowell  from  joining  McClellan,  and  saved  Rich 
mond. 

Battle  of  Pair  Oaks. — In  the  advance  against  Richmond 
McClellan  had  divided  his  army,  the  left  wing  having  crossed 
the  small  stream  known  as  the  Chickahominy.  At  the  end 
of  May  this  advanced  wing  was  placed  in  a  dangerous  situ 
ation  by  a  heavy  storm,  which  flooded  the  stream  and  con 
verted  its  banks  into  marshes.  Taking  quick  advantage  of 
this  opportunity,  on  May  31,  Johnston  made  an  impetuous 
attack  on  the  exposed  wing,  and  drove  it  back  toward  the 
swollen  stream.  A  serious  disaster  was  prevented  by  Gen 
eral  Sumner,  who  succeeded  in  crossing  the  stream  and 
checking  the  Confederate  advance.  On  the  next  day  the 
battle  was  renewed,  but  the  Confederates  were  disheartened 
by  the  loss  of  their  general,  who  had  been  wounded,  and 
were  driven  back  with  severe  loss. 

General  Lee  in  Command. — The  wounding  of  General 
Johnston  rendered  necessary  a  new  Confederate  commander- 
in-chief.  General  Robert  E.  Lee l  was  chosen,  a  man  who 


1  Robert  Edward  Lee  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1807,  being  the  son  of 
General  Henry  Lee,  the  famous  "  Light-horse  Harry"  of  the  Revolution. 
He  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1829,  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and 


THE  EAST  IN   1862.  375 

was  to  gain  world- wide  fame  for  military  genius.  He  lost 
no  time  in  showing  his  activity.  General  Stuart  was  sent 
on  a  cavalry  dash  around  McClellan's 
army,  and  succeeded  in  doing  serious 
damage,  tearing  up  railroads  and  de 
stroying  great  quantities  of  supplies. 

The  Seven  Days'  Battle. — Jackson 
soon  after  returned  and  joined  his 
forces  with  those  of  Lee.  An  instant 
advance  was  made,  and  for  seven  days 
the  two  armies  were  locked  in  deadly 
fight.  On  June  26  the  Union  forces 

.    _  _      .        .        .„  ROBERT  E.  LEK. 

were  repulsed  at  Mechamcsville,  and 
on  the  27th  at  Gaines1  Mills.  McClellan,  his  line  of  supply 
from  York  River  being  now  cut  off,  began  to  withdraw  his 
forces  toward  the  James.  Day  after  day  Lee  continued  his 
vigorous  assaults,  and  step  by  step  the  Union  army  drew 
back.  July  1  found  it  strongly  posted  on  the  sloping  face 
of  a  plateau  at  Malvern  Hill.  Here  Lee  attacked  again  and 
was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  McClellan  now  withdrew  to 
the  James  River  without  further  attack.  Both  sides  had 
lost  heavily,  McClellan  about  sixteen  thousand,  Lee  twenty 
thousand  men.  But  the  victory  rested  with  Lee,  immense 
stores  had  been  taken  or  destroyed,  the  siege  of  Richmond 
was  raised,  and  general  discouragement  affected  the  North. 
President  Lincoln  called  for  three  hundred  thousand  fresh 
troops. 

New  Military  Counsels. — General  Halleck,  who  for  a 

was  made  colonel  for  his  courage.  He  went  with  his  State  in  its  seces 
sion,  was  at  once  made  third  in  rank  of  the  Confederate  officers,  and 
during  the  war  gained  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  ablest  of 
modern  commanders.  After  the  war  he  became  president  of  the 
Washington  and  Lee  University,  and  died  in  1870. 


376  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

time  had  been  commander-in-chief  of  the  Western  armies, 
was  now  in  Washington,  having  been  given  command  of  all 
the  Union  armies.  General  Pope,  who  had  gained  fame 
from  his  capture  of  Island  No.  10,  had  been  brought  from 
the  West  and  placed  in  command  of  the  forces  in  Virginia 
south  of  Washington.  Lee,  now  feeling  that  Richmond  was 
safe  from  any  immediate  attack,  repeated  his  former  ma 
noeuvre,  and  sent  Jackson  northward  against  Pope.  This 
movement  had  the  hoped-for  effect.  Washington  was 
threatened.  Pope's  ability  to  restrain  the  impetuous  Jackson 
was  feared.  Halleck  therefore  ordered  McClellan  to  bring 
his  army — then  known  as  the  Army  of  the  Potomac — north 
by  water  and  join  Pope. 

Second  Bull  Run  Battle. — Lee  took  instant  advantage 
of  the  withdrawal  of  McClellan,  and  marched  rapidly  north 
to  join  Jackson.  Pope's  army  was  struck  by  the  combined 
Confederate  forces  before  McClellan  could  reach  the  battle 
ground,  and,  after  a  severe  and  bloody  engagement  on  the 
old  field  of  Bull  Run,  was  driven  back  in  complete  defeat 
(August  28-30).  The  fighting  continued  for  three  days,  in 
which  the  Confederates  lost  ten  thousand,  the  Unionists 
more  than  fourteen  thousand  men.  Only  the  strength  of 
the  fortifications  at  Washington,  and  the  arrival  of  McClel- 
lan's  advance,  saved  the  capital  from  being  taken. 

Maryland  Invaded. — General  Lee  was  well  aware  that 
Washington  could  not  be  captured.  Wasting  not  a  day  be 
fore  its  works,  he  made  a  rapid  march  northward  into  Mary 
land,  with  the  hope  of  obtaining  recruits  and  possibly  of 
inducing  that  State  to  join  the  Confederacy.  In  these  hopes 
he  was  disappointed.  But  Pennsylvania  lay  before  him,  the 
whole  North  was  in  consternation,  and  quick  action  was 
necessary  on  the  Federal  side. 

All  the  troops  at  hand,  about  eighty-five  thousand  in  num- 


THE  EAST  IN   1862. 


377 


her,  were  placed  under  McClellan's  command,  and  a  rapid 

pursuit  began.     At  Harper's  Ferry  was  a  Union  garrison 

of  eleven  thou 

sand      men. 

Jackson    at 

tacked    that 

post,  forced  it 

to      surrender 

with  its  garri 

son,  and  hur 

ried    back    to 

Lee's      army 

before  McClel- 

lan  could  come 

up. 

South  Moun 
tain  and  An- 
tietam.  —  The 
first  conflict 
took  place  at 
South  Moun 

tain,  where  the  Confederate  rear  was 
driven  from  the  passes.  The  two 
armies  met  on  September  16  at  An- 
tietam,  on  the  Potomac  north  of  Har- 
per's  Ferry.  A  day's  delay  in  the 

attack  enabled  Jackson  to  come  up,  but  Lee  still  had  little 
more  than  fifty  thousand  men  against  the  much  greater 
force  of  his  opponent.  The  battle  was  fought  on  the  17th. 
It  was  a  severe  conflict.  The  Confederates  were  on  the 
defensive,  and  on  ground  of  their  own  choosing.  The  re 
sult  was  that  neither  side  was  victorious,  though  each  side 
lost  about  thirteen  thousand  men.  But  Lee's  advance  to 


BATTLE-FIELDS  OF  VIRGINIA, 

MARYLAND,  AND  PENNSYLVA- 


378 


THE   CIVIL  WAR. 


the  north  was  checked,  and  he  fell  back  across  the 
Potomac. 

McClellan  Removed. — McClellan  was  so  slow  in  follow 
ing  as  to  cause  great  dissatisfaction  among  the  people  of  the 
North.  This  feeling  was  shared  by  the  government,  and  in 
November  McClellan  was  removed  from  his  command  and 
replaced  by  General  Burnside,  who  had  proved  himself  a 
brave  and  able  commander.  Unfortunately  for  him,  how 
ever,  he  was  influenced  by  the  severe  criticisms  of  McClel- 
lan's  inactivity  and  resolved  to  show  himself  more  active. 

The  Battle  of  Fredericksburg. — He  marched  hastily  to 
Fredericksburg,  hoping  to  reach  there  in  advance  of  Lee, 


CONFEDERATE  WORKS  AT  FREDERICKSBURG. 

but  on  his  arrival  he  found  the  Confederates  posted  on  the 
hills  back  of  the  town.  It  was  now  December.  Heavy 
rains  had  swollen  the  Rappahannock  River  so  that  it  could 
not  be  crossed  without  pontoons.  These  were  slow  in 
arriving,  and  by  the  time  they  reached  the  army  attack  was 
almost  hopeless. 


THE   EAST  IN   1862.  379 

But  Burnside,  feeling  that  he  was  expected  to  fight, 
crossed  the  river  on  December  12,  and  on  the  following 
day  attacked  the  Confederates  on  the  heights.  It  was  a 
desperate  attempt.  The  slaughter  was  frightful  and  the 
effort  soon  found  to  be  hopeless.  From  behind  a  long 
stone  wall  the  Confederate  fire  mowed  down  the  Federal 
forces  in  thousands.  In  the  end  they  were  obliged  to  re 
treat,  after  losing  more  than  twelve  thousand  men.  Soon 
after,  Burnside  was  removed  from  his  command,  and  re 
placed  by  General  Hooker. 

The  Proclamation  of  Emancipation . — The  year's  strug 
gle  in  Virginia  had  been  almost  uniformly  disastrous  to  the 
Union  forces.  The  battle  of  Antietam  came  nearest  to  a 
victory,  and  President  Lincoln  took  advantage  of  it  to  per 
form  an  act  which  he  had  for  some  time  contemplated. 
On  September  22,  1862,  a  few  days  after  the  battle,  he 
issued  a  proclamation,  in  which  he  announced  that  on  the 
next  New-Year's  day  all  the  slaves  in  territory  then  in 
arms  against  the  Union  should  be  free.1 

This  proclamation  was  issued  as  a  war  measure,  on  the 
ground  that  the  slaves  were  being  used  to  support  the 
Confederate  cause.  From  this  time  forward  negroes  and 


1  In  1861,  General  Fremont  issued  a  proclamation  in  Missouri,  de 
claring  all  slaves  freemen.  General  Hunter  in  1862  issued  a  similar 
proclamation,  and  mustered  a  regiment  of  negroes  into  the  service. 
These  actions  were  disavowed  by  the  President.  What  to  do  with 
slaves  who  fell  into  Union  hands  was  from  the  first  a  problem.  Gen 
eral  Benjamin  F.  Butler  solved  it.  Some  slaves  who  had  made  their 
way  into  his  camp  while  at  Hampton,  Virginia,  were  demanded  by 
their  owner  under  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  As  the  slaves  said  that 
they  were  to  be  used  in  building  fortifications,  Butler  refused  to  deliver 
them,  saying  that  they  were  "contraband  of  war,"  and  put  them  to 
work  himself.  From  that  time  forward  slaves  were  known  as  "  con 
trabands." 


380  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

fugitive  slaves  were  used  in  the  Union  armies,  and  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  became  one  of  the  purposes  of 
the  war.1 

6.   THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF    1863. 

The  Beginning  of  the  End. — During  the  year  1863  the 
high  tide  of  the  war  of  secession  was  reached.  It  culmi 
nated  on  Independence  Day  in  two  momentous  events,  the 
retreat  of  Lee  from  the  battle-field  of  Gettysburg  and  the 
surrender  of  Vicksburg  to  General  Grant.  These  events 
fatally  weakened  the  Confederacy.  There  were  no  more 
aggressive  movements  of  Lee's  army.  From  that  day  it 
fought  on  the  defensive.  And  the  loss  of  Vicksburg  gave 
the  Union  forces  full  control  of  the  Mississippi,  and  cut  off 
the  three  States  of  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas  from  the 
Confederacy.  The  4th  of  July,  1863,  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  end. 

Battle  of  Chancellorsville. — The  close  of  1862  and  spring 
of  1863  formed  a  period  of  disaster  to  the  Union  armies  in 
Virginia.  The  terrible  defeat  of  Burnside  at  Fredericksburg 
has  been  mentioned.  General  Hooker,  who  succeeded 
Burnside,  did  not  venture  to  repeat  the  attack  on  Lee's 
works,  but  tried  the  effect  of  a  flank  movement.  Marching 
up  the  Rappahannock,  he  crossed  that  river  some  distance 
above  the  town.  He  had  ninety  thousand  men  and  Lee 
only  forty-five  thousand.  But  Lee  did  not  hesitate  to  march 
against  him,  and  on  May  2  the  two  armies  met  in  the  thickly 

1  The  proclamation  of  emancipation  was  followed  by  the  enlistment 
of  many  negroes  into  the  armies  of  the  North,  a  measure  which  was 
opposed  by  many  in  the  North  and  drew  severe  resolutions  from  the 
Confederate  Congress.  The  negroes  proved  eager  to  enlist,  and  made 
good  soldiers.  In  December,  1863,  there  were  over  fifty  thousand  of 
them  under  arms,  and  four  times  that  number  before  the  war  ended. 


THE  CAMPAIGNS   OF   1863.  381 

wooded  region  of  Chancellorsville.  The  battle  was  a  des 
perate  one.  It  was  decided  by  a  flank  attack  made  by 
Stonewall  Jackson,  who  unexpectedly  fell  upon  and  routed 
the  Union  right  wing.  But  the  Confederates  suffered  a 
severe  loss.  Jackson  was  severely  wounded,  and  died  of 
pneumonia  a  few  days  afterward.1 

The  battle  continued  during  the  next  day,  and  ended  in 
Hooker  recrossing  the  river.  It  was  the  most  destructive 
defeat  experienced  by  the  Union  armies  during  the  war. 
The  total  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  thirty  thousand, 
of  which  Hooker's  army  lost  about  seventeen  thousand. 

Lee's  Advance  to  Pennsylvania. — The  victories  of  Fred- 
ericksburg  and  Chancellorsville  gave  the  greatest  encourage 
ment  to  the  South,  and  there  was  a  wide-spread  feeling  that 
now  was  the  time  to  invade  the  North  and  win  some  signal 
success.  Washington  or  Baltimore  might  be  captured,  pos 
sibly  Philadelphia  or  New  York.  Vast  supplies  might  be 
gained,  and  perhaps  terms  of  peace  dictated  from  the  na 
tional  capital  or  the  great  cities  of  the  North. 

Inspired  by  the  vision  of  such  splendid  possibilities,  Lee 
began  a  rapid  march  northward  through  the  Shenandoah 
Valley,  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  and  advanced 
through  that  State  to  Pennsylvania,  reaching  the  small  town 
of  Gettysburg  on  the  1st  of  July. 

March  of  the  Union  Army. — The  threatening  movement 
of  Lee,  and  doubt  as  to  his  purpose,  threw  the  Union  com-, 
manders  into  a  state  approaching  consternation.  To  guard 
Washington  was  the  first  thought,  and  a  hasty  march  north 
began,  with  the  mountain  ridge  that  bounds  the  Shenandoah 


1  Jackson  was  shot  by  his  own  men.  He  had  been  reconnoitring 
the  Union  line,  and  on  his  return  he  and  his  staff  were  mistaken  for 
Federal  cavalry  and  were  fired  upon. 


382 


THE   CIVIL  WAR. 


Valley  on  the  east  between  the  two  armies.     On  the  dis 
covery  that  Lee  was  advancing  into  Pennsylvania,  Hooker's 


-GREE 


PLAN  or  THE  BATTLE  OF  GETTYSBURG. 


army  was  hastened  forward  by  forced  marches  to  cover 
Harrisburg  and  Philadelphia.  On  the  march  General  Hooker 
resigned,  on  account  of  differences  of  opinion  with  the  War 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1863.  383 

Department.  General  George  G.  Meade  took  command  in 
his  place. 

The  First  Day's  Battle  at  Gettysburg. — That  a  great 
battle  was  imminent  was  evident.  Events  decided  where 
it  should  be  fought.  The  Confederate  advance  reached 
Gettysburg  on  July  1,  and  was  there  met  by  an  advance 
force  of  Union  cavalry.  A  fight  began.  Reinforcements 
were  hurried  up  on  both  sides  and  the  skirmish  became  a 
battle.  In  the  end  the  Federal  forces  were  driven  back  and 
General  Reynolds  was  killed.  Retreating  through  the  town, 
the  defeated  army  took  a  position  along  the  crest  of  Cemetery 
Ridge,  a  range  of  elevated  ground  just  south  of  Gettysburg. 
The  position  was  a  strong  one  for  defence,  and  Meade  hur 
ried  up  the  rest  of  the  army  by  forced  marches  to  secure  it. 
All  that  night  regiments  and  brigades  marched  up  by  moon 
light  and  took  their  allotted  posts.  But  when  morning 
came  much  of  the  army  was  still  miles  away.1 

The  Second  Day's  Battle. — Lee's  army,  which  was  about 
seventy-three  thousand  strong,  extended  along  Seminary 
Ridge  in  a  concave  line,  facing  the  convex  ridge  on  which 
Meade's  army  was  posted.  The  lines  occupied  by  the  two 
armies  were  about  twelve  miles  in  length.  Meade's  army 
was  about  eighty  thousand  strong,  but  part  of  it  was  still  a 
day's  march  distant,  pressing  forward  with  all  speed. 

The  battle  of  July  2  was  mainly  between  Sickles's  and 
Longstreet's  corps,  the  struggle  being  largely  for  the  pos- 

1  It  is  said  that  mere  chance  made  Gettysburg  the  field  of  battle. 
Meade  had  selected  a  position  at  Pipe  Creek,  fifteen  miles  to  the  south 
east,  to  make  his  stand.  The  movement  of  cavalry  which  brought  on 
the  battle  was  intended  merely  to  screen  his  line  of  march.  On  the 
other  hand,  Lee  had  not  proposed  to  fight  except  on  the  defensive,  but 
found  himself  forced  to  attack  his  foe  or  retreat,  his  line  of  advance 
being  cut  off. 


384  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

session  of  two  hills,  called  Round  Top  and  Little  Round 
Top.  If  Longstreet  had  won  these,  he  would  have  com 
manded  the  Union  position  and  might  have  defeated  the 
army.  But  he  failed  to  do  so.  The  battle  was  fierce  and 
destructive,  but  the  Federals  retained  the  hills. 


A  SCENE  AT  GETTYSBURG. 

The  Third  Day's  Battle.— On  July  2  the  Confederates 
had  been  successful  on  their  left,  where  they  won  a  posi 
tion  on  Gulp's  Hill,  on  the  Union  right.  But  they  failed  to 
retain  it,  being  attacked  and  driven  out  at  daybreak  of  the 
3d.  Thus  the  flanking  movements  on  both  wings  had 
failed.  On  the  3d,  Lee  made  a  desperate  attack  on  the 
Union  centre,  hoping  to  break  through  Meade's  army  at 
that  point. 

About  one  o'clock  he  began  a  cannonade  from  one  hun 
dred  and  fifty  pieces  of  artillery,  and  for  two  hours  shot 
and  shell  were  poured  upon  the  Union  lines.  Then  Gen 
eral  Pickett,  with  fifteen  thousand  men,  marched  against 
Meade's  centre.  Across  the  plain,  a  mile  in  width,  marched 


THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF   1863. 


385 


that  devoted  band,  with  the  steadiness  of  long  discipline. 
A  hundred  cannon  tore  gaps  in  their  ranks.  Volleys  from 
long  lines  of  infantry  were  poured  upon  them.  No  troops 
could  endure  that  terrible  slaughter.  They  fell  in  hundreds. 
The  front  reached  the  Union  lines,  but  only  to  yield  as  pris 
oners  of  war.  The  remainder  fled  from  the  fatal  field. 
The  desperate  struggle  was  at  an  end.  In  the  three  days' 
fight  Meade  had  lost  twenty-three  thousand  men,  Lee  over 
twenty  thousand. 

The  Retreat. — On  July  4,  Lee's  retreat  began.     His  at 
tempt  to  invade  the  North  had  proved  a  costly  failure. 


NIGHT  SCENE  ON  THE  RETREAT  FROM  GETTYSBURG. 


And  the  host  of  veterans  he  had  lost  could  never  be  re 
placed.  He  hastened  to  the  Potomac,  followed  by  Meade's 
army.  The  river  was  safely  crossed  and  Virginia  once 
more  reached.  Various  strategic  movements  of  the  two 
armies  took  place  during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  but 
there  were  no  conflicts  of  importance. 

26 


386  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

Grant's  Expedition  against  Vicksburg. — The  opening 
of  the  Mississippi  to  the  Union  fleets  was  the  task  under 
taken  by  Grant  in  1863.  The  Confederates  held  the  two 
strong  posts  of  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson  and  the  stretch 
of  river  between.  Vicksburg  was  very  strongly  fortified. 
Sherman  had  been  defeated  in  a  direct  attack  upon  it. 
Grant  attempted  its  capture  from  the  north,  but  in  vain. 
He  then  took  a  bold  resolve.1  Cutting  loose  from  his  base 
of  supplies,  he  marched  down  the  west  side  of  the  river, 
while  the  gun-boats  and  supply-ships  ran  past  the  batteries 
through  a  dreadful  storm  of  shot  and  shell.2  Crossing  the 
river  on  April  30,  he  fought  no  less  than  five  battles  with 
the  Confederate  forces,  in  all  of  which  he  was  victorious. 
Finally,  General  Pemberton  shut  himself  up  with  his  army 
in  Vicksburg,  and  Grant,  who  had  regained  his  communica 
tions  with  the  North,  and  was  now  sure  of  supplies,  began 
the  siege  of  that  city. 

Vicksburg  Taken. — Two  attempts  were  made  to  take 
Vicksburg  by  storm,  but  both  failed.  A  siege  followed, 
with  mining  and  countermining.  Six  weeks  ended  it.  Pem- 
berton's  army  was  suffering  for  food,  and  all  supplies  were 

1  Sherman's  effort  in  1862  had  proved  that  the  city  could  not  be 
taken  from  the  north.     To  capture  it,  the  river  must  be  crossed  or 
its  rear  otherwise  gained.     But  this  presented  great  difficulties,  which 
for  two  months,  February  and  March,  Grant  was  engaged  in  efforts  to 
overcome.     He  tried  by  digging  canals  and  deepening  channels  to 
make  a  route  for  supply-ships  through  the  bayous  west  of  the  Missis 
sippi.    He  also  tried  to  find  a  passage  for  gun-boats  through  the  bayous 
on  the  northeast,  that  would  enable  him  to  reach  the  rear  of  Vicks 
burg  from  that  direction.     Both  plans  failed,  and  nothing  remained 
but  a  daring  march  regardless  of  supplies. 

2  The  passage  of  the  batteries  was  a  dangerous  venture.     They  ex 
tended  for  eight  miles  along  the  river  bank,  for  which  distance  the 
gun-boats  had  to  run  the  gantlet  of  shot  and  shell. 


THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1863. 


387 


cut  off.    On  July  4  the  garrison  was  surrendered  as  priso 
ners  of  war. 

In  this  campaign  the  Confederates  lost  ten  thousand  in 
killed  and  wounded,  thirty-seven  thousand  in  prisoners,  and 
immense  stores. 
It  was  still  more 
disastrous  to 
their  cause  than 
Gettysburg.  On 
the  9th  of  July, 
Port  Hudson, 
which  was  also 
besieged,  surren 
dered.  The  Mis 
sissippi  was  open 
from  its  source  to 
the  Gulf,  and  within  the  next  five  days  a  steamboat,  laden 
with  goods,  passed  downward  from  St.  Louis  to  New  Or 
leans. 

The  Situation  in  the  West. — The  taking  of  Vicksburg 
virtually  ended  the  war  in  the  West,  except  in  Tennessee. 
It  was  thenceforth  confined  to  the  Atlantic  States  of  the 
Confederacy  and  to  the  vicinity  of  Chattanooga,  in  South 
eastern  Tennessee,  with  the  exception  of  one  desperate 
battle  at  Nashville,  and  some  minor  engagements.1 


GRANT'S  VICKSBURG  CAMPAIGN. 


1  In  July,  1863,  General  John  H.  Morgan,  a  dashing  Confederate 
cavalry  officer,  crossed  the  Ohio,  and  made  a  rapid  raid  through  In 
diana  and  Ohio,  burning  factories,  mills,  and  bridges,  tearing  up  rail 
roads,  and  destroying  property  in  great  quantities.  He  was  everywhere 
harassed  by  militia,  and  was  finally  overtaken  at  Parkersburg,  on  the 
Ohio,  where  nearly  all  his  men  were  captured.  Morgan  was  taken 
and  confined  in  the  penitentiary  at  Columbus.  He  escaped  four 
months  afterward,  and  made  his  way  in  safety  to  Richmond. 


388  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

Chickamaug-a. — After  the  battle  of  Murfreesboro'  Bragg 
held  a  strong  line  in  Middle  Tennessee.  Here  he  was  at 
tacked  in  late  June,  1863,  by  Rosecrans,  who,  after  a  bril 
liant  campaign,  forced  him  to  retreat  to  Chattanooga.  This 
position  he  was  obliged  to  leave  in  September  by  the  flank 
ing  movements  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  retired 


BATTLE  OF  CHICKAMAUGA. 


to  Lafayette,  south  of  Chickarnauga  River.  Here  he  was 
reinforced  by  Longstreet,  sent  by  Lee  from  Virginia,  and 
advanced  on  the  Union  army,  then  stretched  out  in  Chicka- 
mauga  Valley  over  a  line  forty  miles  long.  Bragg  attacked 
the  rapidly  concentrating  army  on  September  19,  and  on 
the  20th  defeated  the  right  wing  and  made  a  vigorous  as 
sault  on  the  left,  commanded  by  General  Thomas.  That 
able  warrior,  though  attacked  by  much  superior  forces,  held 
his  ground  with  unyielding  stubbornness,  and  saved  the 
army  from  a  severe  disaster.  He  repulsed  assault  after 
assault,  until  the  sun  went  down  on  that  eventful  day, 
when  his  ammunition  was  almost  exhausted.  At  night  he 


THE    CAMPAIGNS    OF    1863.  389 

withdrew  to  Rossville,  under  orders  received  from  General 
Rosecrans,  and  on  the  following  day  to  Chattanooga.  He 
was  afterward  honored  with  the  title  of  "  The  Rock  of 
Chickamauga.1'1 

Grant  in  Command. — Bragg  followed  up  his  success  by 
seizing  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge,  which 
overlooked  Chattanooga,  and  enabled  him  to  hold  Rose 
crans  in  a  state  of  siege.  Most  of  the  Federal  avenues  of 
supply  were  cut  off,  and  the  army  was  suffering  for  food. 
At  this  juncture  Rosecrans  was  replaced  in  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  by  Thomas,  and  Grant  was 
made  commander  of  all  the  armies  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 
Sherman,  with  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  marched  up 
from  Vicksburg,  and  Hooker  brought  reinforcements  from 
Virginia.  Both  sides  were  making  preparations  for  a  des 
perate  contest. 

Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge. — The  armies 
met  in  battle  late  in  November.  On  the  23d,  Thomas  seized 
Orchard  Knob.  On  the  24th,  Hooker  attacked  the  works 
on  Lookout  Mountain.  His  men  dashed  up  the  hill,  swept 
away  its  defenders,  and  took  the  position  with  little  loss. 
This  is  famed  as  the  "battle  above  the  clouds,"  but  the 
victory  was  gained  with  no  severe  fighting. 

On  the  25th  an  assault  in  force  was  made  on  Missionary 
Ridge,  Sherman  and  Hooker  attacking  the  flanks  and 
Thomas  the  centre  of  Bragg's  army.  The  charge  was 
irresistible.  Up  the  steep  face  of  the  hill  swept  the  whole 

1  How  long  can  you  hold  this  pass?"  was  asked  of  Colonel  George, 
of  the  Second  Minnesota.  "  Until  the  regiment  is  mustered  out  of 
service,"  was  the  brave  colonel's  reply.  Somewhat  later,  when 
Thomas  was  in  command  at  Chattanooga,  closely  besieged  and  badly 
off  for  food,  Grant  telegraphed  him  to  hold  fast  till  he  arrived.  "We 
will  hold  the  town  till  we  starve,"  came  back  over  the  wires. 


390  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

army,  the  Confederates  were  forced  from  their  guns  and 
driven  back  in  defeat,  and  the  siege  of  Chattanooga  was  at 
an  end. 

The  Siege  of  Knoxville. — One  further  event  needs  men 
tion.  Burnside  held  Knoxville,  in  East  Tennessee,  where 
he  was  besieged  by  Longstreet,  Bragg  having  weakened  his 
army  for  that  purpose.  Longstreet  attempted  to  take  the 
city  by  storm  on  November  29,  but  was  repulsed.  On  De 
cember  4  the  advance  of  Sherman's  army  appeared,  and 
Longstreet  abandoned  the  siege. 

7.    THE   FINAL   CAMPAIGNS   OF   THE   WAR. 

Grant  Made  Commander-in-Chief. — The  year  1864 
opened  hopefully  for  the  Union  armies.  The  territory  of 
the  war  had  been  greatly  restricted,  the  South  was  in  great 
want  of  men  and  supplies,  and  the  North  had  at  last  learned 
who  were  its  ablest  commanders.  The  remarkable  mili 
tary  ability  of  General  Grant  had  become  so  evident  that 
he  was  made  (March  3,  1864)  lieutenant-general,  a  rank 
which  had  previously  been  held  only  by  Washington  and 
Scott.  All  the  armies  of  the  Union  were  placed  under  his 
control,  but  he  made  his  head-quarters  with  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  which  continued  under  General  Meade.  Here  he 
faced  General  Lee,  the  greatest  of  the  Southern  leaders. 
He  intrusted  the  movements  in  the  West  to  the  hands  of 
General  Sherman,1  whose  ability  had  been  amply  proved. 

1  William  Tecumseh  Sherman  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1820.  He  grad 
uated  from  West  Point  in  1840,  served  in  the  Seminole  War,  and  left 
the  army  in  1853,  becoming  a  banker  in  San  Francisco,  then  a  lawyer 
in  Kansas,  and  afterward  superintendent  of  the  military  school  in 
Louisiana.  Entering  the  army  when  the  war  broke  out,  he  served  as 
colonel  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He  was  made  brigadier-gen 
eral  for  gallantry,  and  major-general  after  Shiloh.  After  the  war  he 


THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS  OF  THE  WAR. 


391 


Opposed  to  Sherman  was  the  second  ablest  general  of  the 

Confederacy,  Joseph  E. 

Johnston.1 

The  Plan  of  Cam- 
p  a  i  g  n. — The  plan 
adopted  by  Grant  was 
one  of  continuous  for 
ward  movement  of  both 
the  great  armies  of  the 
Union,  Meade  and 
Sherman  to  start  simul 
taneously,  and  each  to 
keep  his  opponent  so 
occupied  that  Lee  and 
Johnston  could  not  help 
each  other.  For  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac 
the  overland  route  to 
Richmond  was  chosen. 
The  crossing  of  the 
Rapidan  River  began 
on  May  4,  and  on 
that  day  General  Grant, 
seated  on  a  roadside 
log,  wrote  his  famous 

telegraph     message     to       GRANT'S  CAMPAIGN.     WILDERNESS  TO  PETERS- 

General  Sherman,  tell-  BURG- 

ing  him  to  begin  his  march.     From  that  day  both  armies 

continued  incessantly  at  work  until  the  end  of  the  war. 

was  made  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1869  general  of  the  armies  of  the 
United  States.     He  retired  in  1883,  and  died  in  1891. 

1  Joseph  Eggleston  Johnston  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1807.     He  en 
tered  West  Point  Academy,  graduated  in  1829,  and  served  as  lieutenant 


392  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

Grant  had  an  army  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
men,  nearly  double  that  of  Lee,  but  this  great  disparity  in 
numbers  was  in  a  measure  equalized  by  the  fact  that  Lee 
fought  in  defence,  Grant  in  attack.  The  Union  troops  had 
a  constant  succession  of  intrenchments  to  assault. 

A  Series  of  Battles. — The  first  conflict  took  place  in  the 
densely  wooded  country  known  as  the  Wilderness,  in  which 
the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  had  been  fought.  Here  the 
two  great  armies  struggled  for  two  days  in  the  forest,  with 
terrible  slaughter,  but  victory  for  neither  side. 

Then  Grant  made  a  flank  movement,  and  marched  to 
Spottsylvania  Court-House.  Here  he  found  Lee  intrenched 
to  meet  him.  Eleven  days  more  (May  8-18)  of  manoeuvring 
and  fighting  succeeded ;  then  Grant,  unable  to  take  Lee's 
works,  flanked  his  army  again. 

The  armies  next  met  on  the  North  Anna  River,  where 
some  more  severe  fighting  took  place.  Then,  by  another 
flanking  march,  Grant  moved  south  to  Cold  Harbor,  on  the 
Chickahominy  River,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Richmond.  But 
Lee,  having  the  shorter  route,  had  once  more  outmarched 
his  opponent,  and  his  men  lay  behind  strong  earthworks. 
Here  they  were  fiercely  assailed  on  the  morning  of  June  3, 
but  so  great  was  their  advantage  of  position  that  the  assault 
was  a  virtual  slaughter.  The  Federal  troops  fell  in  thou 
sands,  while  the  Confederate  loss  was  small. 

Petersburg  Besieged. — At  the  end  of  this  frightful  and 
fruitless  day's  work  Grant  again  withdrew.  He  now  led 

.in  the  Seminole  War.  In  the  Mexican  War,  as  lieutenant-colonel,  he 
displayed  much  courage,  and  was  twice  severely  wounded.  Remaining 
in  the  army  till  1861,  he  entered  the  Confederate  service  as  major-gen 
eral,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  after  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks.  In 
the  West  he  made  active  but  unsuccessful  efforts  to  save  Vicksburg. 
After  the  war  he  lived  in  Savannah,  where  he  died  in  1891. 


THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS  OF  THE  WAR.  393 

his  army  across  the  James  River,  and  attempted  to  take 
Petersburg,  a  railroad  centre  south  of  Richmond.  But 
Lee  again,  having  still  the  shorter  line,  reached  the  ground 
first,  and  threw  up  works  that  could  not  be  taken  with 
out  great  loss.  Grant  thereupon  built  intrenchments  also,' 
and  began  a  siege  of  the  Confederate  works,  which  were 
extended  until  they  stretched  from  Petersburg  to  Rich 
mond. 

Losses  of  the  Armies. — In  this  month  of  incessant 
marching  and  fighting  the  losses  had  been  terrible,  that  of 
the  Union  armies,  from  their  policy  of  attack,  being  much 
the  greater.  The  true  numbers  are  unknown.  Some  state 
ments  put  Grant's  loss  at  forty  thousand,  Lee's  at  thirty 
thousand ;  others  make  the  Union  loss  much  greater,  the 
Confederate  loss  considerably  less.  Comparatively,  Lee's 
loss  was  the  greater,  for  he  could  less  afford  the  slaughter 
of  his  veteran  troops. 

Early's  Raid. — Meanwhile,  Generals  Sigel  and  Hunter 
had  been  repulsed  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  that 
avenue  of  approach  to  the  north  again  lay  open.  Having 
checked  Grant's  advance,  Lee  took  quick  advantage  of  this 
opportunity,  hoping  as  before  to  draw  off  his  foes  by  threat 
ening  Washington.  General  Early  was  sent  to  the  valley 
with  twenty  thousand  men. 

Marching  swiftly  northward,  he  crossed  the  Potomac  into 
Maryland,  met  and  defeated  General  Lew  Wallace  at  the 
Monocacy  River,  and  on  July  11  appeared  before  Fort  Ste 
vens,  one  of  the  defences  of  Washington.  Had  he  continued 
to  advance  the  city  might  have  been  taken.  But  he  gave 
his  men  a  day's  rest,  and  by  the  end  of  that  time  the  forts 
were  strongly  garrisoned  and  Early  was  compelled  to  retreat. 
But  on  his  retreat  he  sent  a  party  of  cavalry  to  Chambers- 
burg,  Pennsylvania,  who  demanded  a  ransom  of  five  hun- 


394  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

dred  thousand  dollars.     Not  obtaining  it,  they  set  fire  to 
and  burned  a  large  part  of  the  town. 

Sheridan's  Ride. — Grant  now  sent  General  Sheridan,1 
the  ablest  cavalry  officer  in  his  army,  to  confront  Early,  drive 
him  if  possible  from  the  valley,  and  destroy  or  carry  off  all 
its  forage,  produce,  and  stock,  so  that  it  could  not  support 
an  army  again.2  Sheridan  proved  himself  an  abler  general 
than  Early.  He  defeated  him  at  Win 
chester  and  Fisher's  Hill,  and  in  a 
week  reduced  his  army  by  one-half. 
On  October  19,  Early  surprised  the 
Union  army  at  Cedar  Creek,  and  drove 
it  in  confusion  from  the  field.  Sheridan 
was  at  Winchester,  twenty  miles  away. 
Hearing  the  sound  of  cannon,  he 
PHILIP  SHERIDAN.  mounted  his  horse  and  rode  at  full 
speed  for  the  front.  Meeting  fugitives 
on  the  road,  he  hailed  them  with  the  cheering  cry,  "  Turn, 
boys,  turn ;  we're  going  back."  Reaching  the  army,  he 
re-formed  it,  attacked  the  Confederates,  who  were  plunder 
ing  the  camp,  and  defeated  them  with  great  slaughter. 
In  a  month's  campaign  Sheridan  had  lost  seventeen  thou- 

1  Philip  Henry  Sheridan  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1831.     He  graduated 
from  West  Point  in  1853,  and  served  in  the  West  till  the  outbreak  of 
the  war.     In  1862  he  served  in  Mississippi,  and  was  made  major-gen 
eral  for  his  bravery  at  Murfreesboro'.    He  commanded  the  cavalry  corps 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  1864-65.   He  was  made  lieutenant-gen 
eral,  succeeding  Sherman,  in  1869,  and  was  given  the  rank  of  general, 
before  held  only  by  Grant  and  Sherman,  on  his  death-bed  in  1888. 

2  Sheridan  destroyed  over  two  thousand  barns  filled  with  hay  and 
wheat  and  over  seventy  mills  filled  with  wheat  and  flour.     He  drove 
off  over  four  thousand  head  of  cattle  and  killed  and  issued  to  the 
troops  three  thousand  sheep.     War  is  brutal  at  its  best,  and  this  was 
an  example  of  its  necessary  brutality. 


THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS   OF  THE  WAR,  395 

sand  men.  But  Early's  army  was  practically  destroyed. 
Washington  was  safe  during  the  remainder  of  the  war. 
The  Shenandoah  Valley  could  not  again  feed  an  invading 
army. 

The  Siege  of  Petersburg. — The  siege  of  the  works  at 
Petersburg  continued  incessantly  till  the  spring  of  1865. 
Only  two  events  in  this  siege  need  special  mention.  A  mine 
was  dug  under  a  strong  Confederate  fort  in  front  of  Peters 
burg,  and  exploded  on  the  morning  of  July  30.  The  fort 
and  its  garrison  were  hurled  into  the  air.  The  charge 
through  the  breach,  however,  was  badly  managed,  a  halt 
being  made  in  the  crater  caused  by  the  explosion,  so  that 
the  Confederates  had  time  to  rally  in  defence.  A  torrent 
of  shot  and  shell  was  poured  upon  the  confused  mass  of 
men,  killing  them  in  multitudes.  Such  as  could  escaped, 
but  not  less  than  four  thousand  men  were  lost  in  this  ill- 
conducted  enterprise. 

The  second  event  was  the  capture  of  the  Weldon  Rail 
road,  one  of  Lee's  means  of  communication  with  the  South. 
He  made  desperate  efforts  to  recover 
it,  but  in  vain,  and  Grant's  lines  were 
extended  to  this  important  point. 

Sherman's    Advance.  —  While 
Grant   was    thus    keeping  Lee    fully 
occupied  in  the  North,  Sherman  was 
keeping  Johnston,  who  had  succeeded 
Bragg  after  the  defeat  of  the  latter  at 
Chattanooga,  as   actively  engaged   in       WILLIAM  T.  SHERMAN. 
the  South.    With  an  army  of  one  hun 
dred  thousand  men  he  advanced  upon  Johnston,  who,  with 
about  fifty  thousand,  was  encamped  at  Dalton,  Georgia.     The 
route  to  Atlanta,  Sherman's  goal,  was  defended  by  strong 
intrenchments  at  various  points.     These  Sherman  attacked 


396  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

in  succession,  battles  being  fought  at  five  different  points, — 
Dalton,  Resaca,  Dallas,  Lost  Mountain,  and  Kenesaw  Moun 
tain. 

After  each  battle  Sherman  made  a  flanking  march,  and 
Johnston  hastened  to  a  new  fortified  post  to  meet  him.  It 
was  in  its  way  a  repetition  of  the  Grant  and  Lee  campaign. 
Sherman  had  but  a  single  railroad  to  bring  his  supplies 
and  had  to  weaken  his  army  to  defend  it.  Johnston  was 
shrewdly  waiting  until  his  opponent  had  thus  become  weak 
enough  to  be  safely  attacked  in  the  open  field. 

Johnston  Replaced  by  Hood. — This  slow  and  sure  policy 
of  the  able  Confederate  strategist  was  defeated  by  the  impa 
tience  of  the  Confederate  government.  President  Davis, 
listening  to  complaints,  and  himself  dissatisfied,  removed 
Johnston  at  this  critical  juncture,  and  replaced  him  by  Gen 
eral  Hood,  one  of  the  hardest  fighters  in  the  Confederate 
army. 

Capture  of  Atlanta. — As  it  proved,  caution  was  just  then 
a  safer  policy  than  hard  fighting.  Hood  sustained  his  rep 
utation  by  making  three  desperate  attacks  upon  the  Union 
army.  He  was  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  Then  Sher 
man  adopted  his  flanking  policy  again.  Taking  in  his 
w^agons  fifteen  days'  rations,  he  skirted  Atlanta  and  placed 
his  whole  army  on  Hood's  line  of  supplies.  Hood  was 
obliged  to  evacuate  the  city,  and  on  September  2,  1864, 
Sherman  took  possession  of  Atlanta,  the  most  important 
workshop  and  arsenal  of  the  Confederacy. 

Results  of  the  Campaign. — This  campaign,  which  had 
lasted  for  four  months,  and  had  been  marked  by  ten  battles 
and  numerous  smaller  engagements,  had  been  attended  by 
a  loss  of  thirty  thousand  men  to  the  Union  and  still  more 
to  the  Confederate  army.  The  result  was  very  serious  to 
the  Confederacy.  Atlanta  and  its  neighboring  towns  con- 


THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS   OF  THE  WAR.  397 

tained  the  principal  mills,  foundries,  and  manufactories  from 
which  the  Confederate  armies  obtained  their  supplies  of 
powder,  cannon,  clothing,  wagons,  and  other  necessaries. 
All  these  were  now  destroyed,  and  the  Confederacy  received 
an  almost  fatal  blow. 

Hood  Invades  Tennessee. — A  desperate  effort  was  now 
made  to  draw  Sherman  from  Atlanta.  Hood,  with  his  army 
of  forty  thousand  men,  suddenly  left  his  line  of  defence  and 
marched  into  Tennessee,  hoping  by  cutting  off  Sherman's 
line  of  communication  and  supply  to  force  him  to  retreat 
from  Georgia  and  transfer  the  area  of  the  war  again  into 
Tennessee. 

He  was  mistaken.  Sherman  had  no  thought  of  abandon 
ing  the  ground  he  had  won.  On  the  contrary,  he  had  it  in 
view  to  march  through  Georgia  to  the  sea,  leaving  the  armies 
in  Tennessee  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Georgia,  the  gran 
ary  of  the  Confederacy,  would  afford  him  abundant  supplies. 
The  destruction  of  produce  as  he  passed  would  enormously 
deplete  the  Confederate  stock  of  food.  The  march  of  Hood 
from  his  front,  therefore,  was  precisely  what  he  desired.1 

Hood  in  Tennessee. — General  Thomas  was  in  command 
at  Nashville.  Toward  this  city  Hood  swept  onward  with 
his  veteran  army.  Schofield  opposed  him  at  Franklin. 
Here  a  severe  battle  took  place,  in  which  Hood  lost  five 
generals  and  over  six  thousand  men.  Schofield  then  drew 
back  to  Nashville,  and  Hood  advanced  to  its  vicinity  and 
laid  siege  to  the  city. 

The  Battle  of  Nashville. — For  two  weeks  Thomas  lay 
behind  his  works,  while  Hood  pressed  the  siege.  The  inac- 


1  "If  Hood  will  go  there,  I  will  give  him  rations  to  go  with,"  said 
Sherman.  The  removal  of  Hood's  army  left  the  way  clear  for  the 
movement  which  he  contemplated,  but  which  would  have  been  impos 
sible  with  a  powerful  army  in  his  front. 


398 


THE   CIVIL  WAR. 


tivity  of  the  Union  general  gave  great  dissatisfaction  to  the 
authorities  at  Washington.  Grant  ordered  him  to  move, 
and  had  started  to  take  command  in  his  place,  when 
Thomas,  who  had  only  delayed  until  fully  prepared,  fell 
upon  Hood  with  all  his  force.  For  two  days  the  battle 
continued,  December  15  and  16.  It  ended  in  Hood's  utter 
rout.  He  lost  more  than  fifteen  thousand  men,  and  the 
remainder  of  his  army 
was  utterly  disorganized 
and  scattered.  It  never 
came  together  again.  The 
soldiers  made  their  way 
home.  The  army  was 


SHERMAN'S  MARCH,  ATLANTA  TO  RALEIGH. 

at  an  end.     The  war  in  the  West  was  of  minor  importance 
after  this  signal  victory. 

The  Exhaustion  of  the  South. — The  South  was  now 
nearly  exhausted.  The  heavy  losses  in  battle  and  the  dis 
persal  of  Hood's  army  had  greatly  decreased  its  fighting 
capacity,  while  clothes,  food,  and  munitions  of  war  were 
growing  perilously  scarce.  The  blockade  on  the  coast  was 
so  close  that  little  could  be  brought  in  from  abroad.  The 


THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS  OF  THE  WAR. 


399 


capture  of  Atlanta  had  cut  off  one  important  source  of 
supply.     Another  was  soon  to  be  lost. 

Sherman's  March  through  Georgia.  —  Disregarding 
Hood's  northward  march,  Sherman  left  Atlanta  about  the 
middle  of  November,  and,  cutting  loose  from  all  commu 
nications,  started  with  his  army  of  sixty  thousand  veterans 


SHERMAN'S  MARCH  TO  THE  SEA. 

on  a  long  march  across  the  State  of  Georgia.  For  a  month 
he  and  his  army  were  lost  to  sight.  They  were  out  of  the 
reach  of  telegraphs  and  railroads,  living  on  the  country  as 
they  passed,  and  Christmas  was  at  hand  before  the  anxious 
North  heard  of  them  again.1 

1  Three  scouts,  who  left  the  Union  army  just  before  it  reached  Sa 
vannah,  brought  the  first  news  of  Sherman's  safety.  They  hid  in  the 
rice  swamps  by  day  and  made  their  way  down  the  river  at  night.  Pass 
ing  Fort  McAllister  unseen,  they  were  picked  up  by  the  blockading 


400  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

The  army,  divided  into  four  columns,  with  cavalry  and 
skirmishers  in  front,  had  moved  through  three  hundred 
miles  of  fertile  territory,  destroying  railroads  and  supplies 
throughout  a  belt  sixty  miles  wide.  In  late  December  they 
appeared  before  Savannah,  having  performed  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  feats  in  modern  military  history,  and 
ruined  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  enemy's  mili 
tary  supplies.  On  the  21st,  Savannah  was  captured  and 
the  famous  march  came  to  an  end.  Sherman's  army  win 
tered  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  still  destroying  supplies 
wherever  found. 

The  Red  River  Expedition. — Early  in  1864  a  land  and 
naval  expedition,  under  General  Banks,  was  sent  up  the 
Red  River,  with  the  hope  of  conquering  that  region.  It 
proved  a  disastrous  failure,  Banks  being  completely  defeated 
and  losing  five  thousand  men  and  large  supplies.  Mean 
while,  taking  advantage  of  the  absence  of  troops,  General 
Forrest  advanced  through  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  and 
attacked  Paducah.  He  was  repulsed  by  the  gun-boats,  but 
took  Fort  Pillow,  and  gave  no  quarter  to  its  colored  garrison. 
Altogether  the  Red  River  expedition  was  a  costly  and 
seemingly  a  needless  effort,  since  the  region  invaded,  being 
cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  Confederacy,  could  safely  have 
been  left  untouched.  It  must  have  yielded  of  itself  on  the 
close  of  the  war  in  the  East. 

The  War  on  the  Coast. — While  these  events  were  taking 
place  on  land,  the  fleet  was  not  idle.  The  blockade  had 
been  made  so  complete  that  few  blockade-runners  now 
reached  Confederate  ports.  During  the  war  over  fifteen 

gun-boats,  which  sent  north  the  welcome  news.  After  taking  Savan 
nah,  Sherman  wrote  to  Lincoln  that  he  presented  it  to  him  as  a  Christ 
mas  gift,  "  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  guns  and  twenty-five  thousand 
bales  of  cotton." 


THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS  OF  THE  WAR. 


401 


hundred  of  these  adventurous  vessels  were  taken  or  de 
stroyed.  Since  early  in  the  war  Charleston  had  been  be 
sieged,  but  it  was  so  vigorously  defended  that  every  attempt 
to  take  it  proved  a  failure  until  the  coming  of  Sherman's 
army  in  1865. 

Farragut  at  Mobile. — On  August  5,  1864,  Admiral  Far- 
ragut,  with  a  fleet  of  wooden  and  iron-clad  vessels,  attacked 
the  defences  of  Mobile.  These  defences  consisted  of  three 
forts,  a  fleet  of  three  gun-boats,  and  the  great  iron-clad  ram 


BATTLE  m  MOBILE  BAY. 

Tennessee.  The  fight  was  a  severe  one,  but  ended  in  the 
capture  of  the  ram  and  the  dispersal  or  destruction  of  the 
gun-boats.  The  forts  soon  after  surrendered. 

Fort  Fisher  Taken. — Later  in  the  year  (December  24, 
25),  Fort  Fisher,  which  defended  the  harbor  of  Wilmington, 
North  Carolina,  was  attacked  by  a  combined  land  and  naval 
force,  which  failed  to  take  it.  On  January  15,  1865,  it  was 

26 


402  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

assailed  by  the  same  force  and  taken  by  assault.  This 
ended  all  blockade-running.  Every  port  of  the  Confederacy 
was  now  closed. 

The  Alabama. — Meanwhile,  a  number  of  Confederate 
cruisers — built  in  British  ports  and  manned  by  British 
sailors,  their  officers  only  being  from  the  South — had  gone 
far  toward  destroying  American  commerce.  Hundreds  of 
vessels  had  been  taken  and  burnt,  or  bonded  for  heavy 
sums.  The  most  notable  of  these  cruisers  was  the  Alabama, 
commanded  by  Captain  Semmes,  which  captured  in  all 
over  sixty  vessels.  On  June  19,  1864,  this  vessel,  then  in 
the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,  France,  challenged  the  ship  of 
war  Kearsarge  to  fight.  The  challenge  was  accepted  and  a 
fierce  battle  took  place.  It  ended  in  the  sinking  of  the  Ala 
bama.1  Later  in  the  year  the  Georgia  and  Florida,  two  others 
of  these  cruisers,  were  captured. 

The  Presidential  Election  of  1864.— In  the  1864  elec 
tion  Lincoln  was  again  the  Republican  candidate  for  the 
Presidency.  Andrew  Johnson,  a  War  Democrat  of  Ten- 

2  The  Alabama  was  built,  armed,  and  furnished  in  England,  sailed 
from  England  under  the  British  flag,  and  had  a  crew  mostly  made  up 
of  British  subjects.  She  could  not  take  her  prizes  into  British  ports, 
so  they  were  generally  plundered  and  burnt.  She  destroyed  sixty-four 
American  vessels,  valued  with  their  cargoes  at  ten  million  dollars.  As 
a  result  of  the  work  of  Confederate  privateers  two-thirds  of  the  carry 
ing  trade  of  the  United  States  was  transferred  to  British  vessels.  The 
Alabama  was  finally  blockaded  by  the  Kearsarge  in  the  port  of  Cher 
bourg,  France,  and,  as  she  could  not  escape,  challenged  the  Kearsarge 
to  fight,  coming  out  for  that  purpose.  An  English  yacht  hovered  near 
the  scene  of  action,  and  after  the  sinking  of  the  Alabama  picked  up  Cap 
tain  Semmes  and  part  of  his  crew  and  carried  them  to  England.  By 
the  laws  of  war  they  should  have  been  delivered  to  the  Kearsarge. 
This  naval  battle  was  witnessed  by  more  than  fifteen  thousand  specta 
tors  on  the  highlands  of  the  coast,  a  Sunday  excursion  train  having 
brought  hundreds  of  them  from  Paris. 


THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS  OF  THE  WAR.  4Q3 

nessee,  was  nominated  for  Vice-President.  The  Democrats 
nominated  General  McClellan,  and  in  their  platform  de 
manded  that  hostilities  should  cease,  on  the  ground  that  the 
war  was  a  failure  and  the  South  could  not  be  subdued. 
Lincoln  was  elected,  receiving  two  hundred  and  twelve 
electoral  votes  to  twenty-one  for  McClellan.  The  eleven 
seceded  States,  of  course,  did  not  vote. 

Sherman's  March  North. — In  February,  1865,  Sherman 
left  Savannah  and  began  a  long  march  north.  His  army,  as 
before,  moved  in  columns,  covering  a  belt  fifty  miles  wide. 
Columbia,  the  capital  of  South  Carolina,  was  taken  and 
burned.  Charleston  was  evacuated  by  the  Confederates 
and  occupied  by  Federal  troops.  On  reaching  Goldsboro', 
North  Carolina,  Sherman  was  joined  by  General  Schofield 
from  Wilmington  and  General  Terry  from  New-Bern,  with 
their  forces.  His  army  was  now  one  hundred  thousand 
strong.  It  was  opposed  by  General  Johnston,  who  had  been 
restored  to  his  command,  and  who  had  done  his  utmost  to 
check  Sherman's  advance  to  the  north. 

The  Fall  of  Richmond. — The  war  was  nearer  its  end 
than  many  supposed.  Despite  the  stupendous  earthworks 
which  Lee's  army  had  built  from  Petersburg  to  Richmond, 
there  were  not  men  enough  for  their  proper  defence,  while 
the  operations  of  the  armies  at  the  South  and  West  had 
largely  cut  off  the  sources  of  reinforcements  and  supplies. 
The  end  came  in  the  spring  of  1865.  On  March  29,  Gen 
eral  Sheridan,  with  a  large  force  of  cavalry  and  infantry, 
moved  around  the  right  flank  of  Lee's  army  to  Five  Forks, 
a  place  about  twelve  miles  west  of  Petersburg.  This  place 
surrendered  on  April  1,  yielding  Sheridan  five  thousand 
prisoners. 

It  was  evident  that  Richmond  could  no  longer  be  held. 
Lee,  threatened  with  an  attack  in  the  rear,  felt  it  necessary 


404  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

to  evacuate  the  capital  without  delay.  On  April  2  the 
Union  army  made  an  assault  along  the  whole  line,  and 
before  noon  many  of  the  Confederate  works  were  taken  and 
thousands  of  prisoners  captured.  The  end  was  at  hand. 
Lee  sent  word  to  President  Davis  that  the  army  must  retreat 
at  once.  During  that  night  the  Confederate  government 
and  army  left  the  city  they  had  so  long  and  vigorously  held. 
On  Monday,  April  3,  Federal  troops  marched  into  the 
capital  of  the  Confederacy.1 

The  Last  March  of  Lee's  Army. — Only  one  hope  re 
mained  to  General  Lee.  That  was  to  join  Johnston  in 
North  Carolina  and  seek  to  prolong  the  contest  by  the  com 
bined  strength  of  the  two  armies.  This  junction  Grant  was 
determined,  if  possible,  to  prevent,  and  he  pursued  the 
retiring  army  with  the  utmost  speed. 

Lee  marched  toward  Lynchburg.  Sheridan's  cavalry 
cut  him  off  from  this  point.  Lee's  veterans  were  now 
without  food,  and  were  forced  to  gnaw  the  young  shoots 
of  the  trees  for  sustenance.  At  length  they  found  their 


1  Word  of  what  General  Lee  proposed  was  brought  to  President 
Davis  while  at  church,  the  day  being  Sunday.  He  immediately  left, 
with  a  face  that  betrayed  the  character  of  the  news.  People  harried 
from  the  churches,  and  the  alarm  spread  through  the  city.  When, 
late  in  the  afternoon,  the  signs  of  evacuation  became  evident,  crowds 
of  fugitives  filled  the  streets,  hurrying  from  the  city  by  every  means 
available.  About  midnight  hundreds  of  barrels  of  liquor  were  rolled 
into  the  streets  and  the  heads  knocked  in,  to  prevent  the  disorder  of 
general  drunkenness.  By  military  order  the  four  principal  tobacco 
warehouses  of  the  city  were  set  on  fire  and  the  flames  soon  spread 
beyond  control.  When  morning  broke  the  conflagration  was  wide- 
extended,  and  everywhere  were  busy  plunderers,  carrying  off  goods  of 
every  description.  Into  this  scene  of  terror  the  Federal  troops  came 
as  aids  to  law  and  order,  lending  their  assistance  to  check  the  con 
flagration  and  put  an  end  to  the  reign  of  robbery. 


THE  FINAL  CAMPAIGNS  OF  THE  WAR.  405 

advance  completely  cut  off  by  Sheridan,  and  on  the  9th 
of  April,  1865,  at  Appomattox  Court-House,  General  Lee, 
finding  further  efforts  hopeless,  surrendered  his  army  to 
General  Grant. 

This  army  had  been  greatly  reduced.     Thousands  had 
been  taken  or  had  deserted  in  the  hopeless  retreat.     Only 


THE  LAST  CONFEDERATE  BATTLE  LINE. 

about  twenty-eight  thousand  remained.  These  were  paroled. 
Grant  supplied  the  starving  veterans  with  food,  and  allowed 
the  cavalry  to  keep  their  horses,  saying,  with  fine  generosity, 
"  They  will  need  them  for  their  spring  ploughing  and  other 
farm  work." 

The  End  of  the  War. — Five  days  after  Lee's  surrender 
(April  14)  General  Anderson  hoisted  over  Fort  Sumter  the 
flag  which  he  had  pulled  down  on  that  day  four  years  be 
fore.  Soon  after  all  opposition  to  the  Union  armies  ended. 
Johnston,  who  had  been  repulsed  near  Goldsboro',  on 
March  19,  surrendered  to  Sherman  on  April  26,  on  the 
same  terms  that  had  been  granted  Lee.  On  May  4,  Gen- 


406  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

eral  Taylor,  in  Alabama,  surrendered,  and  soon  after  the 
last  of  the  Confederates  in  arms  gave  up  the  struggle.  The 
total  number  paroled  in  the  several  armies  was  one  hun 
dred  and  seventy-four  thousand  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
three. 

Capture  of  Davis. — Jefferson  Davis,  with  his  family  and 
cabinet,  fled  from  Richmond  rapidly  southward,  with  a 
guard  of  two  thousand  cavalry  soldiers.  These  gradually 
dwindled  away,  and  on  May  11  he  was  captured  at  Irwins- 
ville,  Georgia.  He  was  imprisoned  in  Fortress  Monroe,  but 
was  finally  set  at  liberty  without  a  trial. 

Assassination  of  Lincoln. — The  surrender  of  General 
Lee  was  quickly  followed  by  a  deplorable  incident,  which 
threw  the  whole  nation,  which  had  been  gladdened  by  the 
return  of  peace,  into  a  state  of  sorrow  and  mourning.  On 
the  evening  of  April  14,  while  the  President  was  seated, 
with  his  family  and  friends,  in  a  box  at  Ford's  Theatre,  he 
was  shot  by  an  actor  named  John  Wilkes  Booth,  who 
sprang  to  the  stage  with  a  theatrical  cry  of  "  Sic  semper 
tyrannis  !"  ("  Thus  always  with  tyrants  !") 

He  was  one  of  a  party  of  conspirators,  of  whom  another 
tried  to  kill  Mr.  Seward,  the  Secretary  of  State.1  Booth 
was  tracked  to  his  hiding-place  and  shot.  Four  of  his 
accomplices  were  hanged  and  others  imprisoned  for  life. 
The  President  lingered  a  few  hours,  and  died  the  next 
morning.  The  funeral  took  place  on  the  19th,  which  was 
observed  as  a  day  of  mourning  throughout  the  land. 

1  Booth  and  his  accomplices  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  a 
foolish  idea  of  avenging  the  wrongs  of  the  South,  with  which  may 
have  been  mixed  up  a  desire  for  notoriety.  As  it  was  they  injured  the 
South  by  removing  one  on  whom  it  was  coming  to  look  as  a  friend, 
and  whose  kindliness  and  wisdom  would  have  gone  far  to  prevent  the 
dissensions  and  bitter  feeling  that  afterward  arose. 


THE  COUNTRY  DURING  THE  WAR.  407 

The  body  was  borne  to  the  President's  home  at  Spring 
field,  Illinois,  through  a  land  plunged  into  the  deepest 
grief. 

8.  THE    COUNTRY   DURING    THE   WAR. 

Tariff  and  Internal  Revenue. — Congress  and  the  execu 
tive  department  of  the  government  were  actively  engaged 
during  the  war,  largely  in  the  task  of  providing  means  for 
its  continuance.  The  obtaining  of  revenue  was  one  of  the 
most  important  duties  of  the  administration,  and  various 
financial  measures  were  adopted.  The  Morrill  Tariff  Act, 
passed  just  before  Lincoln  took  his  seat  in  1861,  added 
largely  to  the  duties  on  imports.  During  the  war  further 
increases  in  duties  were  made,  till  at  the  end  of  the  conflict 
the  tariff  charges  were  nearly  three  times  as  great  as  in 
Buchanan's  administration. 

To  increase  the  revenue  a  system  of  internal  taxes  was 
adopted.  Stamps  had  to  be  bought  and  placed  on  all  bank 
checks,  receipts,  and  many  legal,  commercial,  and  other 
documents.  Pianos,  billiard-tables,  gold  watches,  and  a 
host  of  other  things  were  taxed.  Heavy  taxes  were  laid  on 
tobacco  and  spirituous  liquors,  and  people  with  large  in 
comes  had  to  pay  a  tax. 

Paper  Money  and  Bonds. — But  it  was  impossible  by 
taxation  to  meet  the  enormous  expenses  of  the  war,  which 
soon  reached  one  million  dollars  a  day,  and  in  time  became 
three  times  that  amount.  The  vast  sum  required  could  be 
had  only  by  borrowing.  Bonds  bearing  interest  at  high  rates 
were  issued,  and  large  sums  of  money  were  obtained  in 
this  way.  National  paper  money  or  notes  were  also  issued, 
which  were  called  "  greenbacks"  from  their  color. 

Gold  at  a  Premium. — Gold  and  silver  soon  became  more 
valuable  than  greenbacks  and  ceased  to  be  used  as  money. 


408  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

Gold  steadily  increased  in  price  until  at  length  a  greenback 
dollar  was  worth  only  about  thirty-five  cents  in  gold. 
Many  years  passed  before  the  government  notes  equalled 
gold  in  value.  As  there  was  no  silver  in  circulation,  change 
became  very  scarce,  and  small  notes,  for  fifty  cents,  twenty- 
five  cents,  and  smaller  sums,  were  issued  to  supply  the 
public  demand. 

National  Banks. — In  1863  an  act  of  Congress  was  passed 
establishing  National  Banks.  These  took  the  place  of  the 
old  State  Banks.  The  notes  issued  by  them  were  made 
good  by  United  States  bonds  bought  by  the  banks  and  de 
posited  in  the  Treasury  at  Washington,  so  that  these  notes 
were  everywhere  taken,  the  government  being  security  for 
their  payment. 

Southern  Finances. — The  Confederacy  adopted  similar 
methods  of  finance,  but  had  not  the  same  power  of  making 
good  its  promises  to  pay.  Bonds  were  issued,  many  of 
which  were  sold  in  Europe.  These  fell  in  value  until  they 
became  worthless.  The  same  was  the  case  with  the  paper 
money  issued.  Its  fate  resembled  that  of  the  Continental 
currency  of  the  Revolution.  Late  in  the  war  flour  was 
quoted  at  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  dollars  a  barrel, 
shoes  at  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars  a  pair,  pota 
toes  at  twenty-five  dollars  a  bushel,  butter  at  fifteen  dollars 
a  pound,  etc.1 


1  The  people  of  the  Confederacy  were  put  to  the  severest  straits  to 
obtain  the  necessaries  of  life.  While  great  sums  in  Confederate  cur 
rency  were  paid  for  ordinary  articles,  there  were  others  not  to  be  had 
at  any  price.  Many  substitutes  were  used  for  tea.  Pins  became  ex 
ceedingly  scarce,  arid  hair-pins  were  made  of  large  thorns  with  heads 
of  wax.  Shoes  were  made  with  wooden  soles,  to  which  the  uppers 
were  tacked.  Salt  was  used  with  the  greatest  economy,  and  old  fish- 
barrels  were  soaked  and  the  water  evaporated  to  increase  the  supply. 


THE   COUNTRY   DURING  THE  WAR.  409 

Conscription. — The  armies,  North  and  South,  at  first 
were  raised  by  volunteering.  At  length,  as  enlistments 
grew  slow,  a  conscription  act  was  passed  by  Congress.  It 
was  not  severe.  Any  person  "  drafted"  could  gain  exemp 
tion  by  hiring  a  substitute,  or  paying  three  hundred  dollars 
for  that  purpose.  Large  bounties  were  paid  for  volunteers, 
and  many  were  secured  in  that  way.  Conscription  was 
also  adopted  in  the  South,  where  in  the  end  few  exemptions 
were  permitted. 

The  Draft  Riot. — The  conscription  was  strongly  opposed, 
particularly  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  on  July  13,  1863, 
a  serious  riot  broke  out  there,  the  mob  gaining  control  of 
the  city,  and  holding  it  in  terror  for  several  days.  Great 
excesses  took  place,  about  fifty  buildings  being  burned,  and 
more  than  two  million  dollars'  worth  of  property  destroyed. 
The  rioters  showed  a  particular  hatred  toward  colored 
people,  of  whom  several  were  hanged.  Troops  were 
brought  to  the  city  to  put  down  the  riot,  and  in  the  struggle 
that  followed  over  twelve  hundred  of  the  rioters  were  killed. 

Foreign  Affairs. — Earnest  efforts  were  made  by  the  Con 
federacy  to  obtain  from  foreign  nations  a  recognition  of  its 
independence  as  a  nation,  but  without  success.  It  was 
feared  by  foreign  nations  that  such  an  act  would  bring 
against  them  a  declaration  of  war  from  the  United  States. 
A  number  of  them,  however,  accorded  belligerent  rights  to 
the  Confederate  States.  And  through  the  sympathy  of  the 
British  government  they  were  permitted  to  build  and  equip 
cruisers,  a  form  of  support  for  which  Great  Britain  after 
ward  paid  dearly. 


Women  wore  garments  the  cloth  of  which  they  had  spun  and  woven, 
while  woollen  clothing  almost  disappeared.  Such  were  a  few  of  the 
endless  makeshifts  to  which  the  people  were  put. 


410  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

The  Armies. — At  the  time  of  Lee's  surrender  there  were 
more  than  a  million  of  Union  soldiers  under  arms.  The 
total  number  enlisted  had  been  much  more  than  this,  and 
probably  six  hundred  thousand  lost  their  lives  on  the  two 
sides  from  wounds  and  disease,  in  addition  to  the  large 
number  disabled.  How  many  served  in  the  Confederate 
armies  there  are  no  statistics  to  show.  The  total  cost  of 
the  war,  including  property  destroyed  and  the  value  of  the 
slaves,  has  been  estimated  at  not  less  than  eight  billion 
dollars.  At  the  end  of  the  war  the  government  was  in 
debt  nearly  three  billion  dollars. 

Sanitary  and  Christian  Commissions. — No  previous 
war  had  ever  shown  such  humane  care  of  the  people  for 
the  wounded  and  suffering  soldiers.  The  Sanitary  Com 
mission,  organized  among  the  people,  had  its  corps  of 
nurses,  physicians,  and  attendants,  its  hospitals,  ambu 
lances,  hospital  cars  and  boats,  and  other  means  for  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  distributed  vast  quanti 
ties  of  clothing  and  other  supplies  for  the  comfort  of  the 
soldiers.  Millions  of  dollars  were  raised  for.  its  support  by 
subscription  and  by  "  Sanitary  Fairs"  held  all  over  the 
North.  The  Christian  Commission  was  organized  to  look 
after  the  moral  and  religious  welfare  of  the  soldiers,  in 
which  it  proved  very  active  and  efficient.  The  South 
lacked  the  means  to  take  care  of  her  soldiers  to  any  similar 
extent. 

The  Grand  Review. — On  May  23  and  24  a  grand  review 
of  Grant's  and  Sherman's  armies  was  held  in  Washington, 
previous  to  their  disbandment.  The  column  of  soldiers 
was  over  thirty  miles  long,  and  for  two  days  it  marched 
up  the  broad  avenue  from  the  Capitol  to  the  White  House, 
to  the  sound  of  martial  music,  and  under  the  tattered  flags 
which  had  waved  over  scores  of  battle-fields.  No  such 


THE   COUNTRY   DURING  THE  WAR.  411 

spectacle  had  ever  been  seen  in  America.  And  a  still  more 
striking  spectacle  was  that  of  all  these  war-worn  veterans, 
in  a  few  weeks,  returning  to  the  peaceful  duties  of  citizen 
ship,  only  some  fifty  thousand  of  the  whole  vast  array  being 
retained  under  arms. 

What  the  War  Settled.— If  it  be  asked  what  was  settled 
by  this  long  and  terrible  war,  it  may  be  answered  that  it 
definitely  settled  the  question  of  secession.  No  State  is 
likely  hereafter  to  attempt  to  leave  the  Union. 

It  put  an  end  to  slavery,  and  thus  removed  the  principal 
cause  of  hostile  feelings  between  the  two  sections  of  the 
Union. 

It  showed  the  strength  of  the  great  republic,  and  taught 
Europe  that  the  Union  of  the  States  was  far  stronger  than 
foreign  statesmen  were  prepared  to  believe. 

It  greatly  increased  the  respect  which  foreign  nations 
held  for  this  country,  and  for  the  principle  of  republicanism 
as  here  maintained. 

New  States. — During  the  war  two  new  States  were  ad 
mitted  to  the  Union,  West  Virginia,  already  named,  and,  in 
1864,  Nevada,  whose  population  had  grown  rapidly  from 
the  discovery  of  rich  silver-mines  within  its  borders. 


PART    X. 
DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    NEW   NATION. 


I.  Jobnson's  Hfcmtnistration, 

The  New  President's  Position. — On  April  15,  1865,  three 
hours  after  Lincoln's  life  had  ended,  Andrew  Johnson l 
quietly  assumed  his  place  and  began 
to  perform  the  duties  of  the  office. 
The  new  President  was  a  man  of  posi 
tive  convictions  and  strong  will,  quali 
ties  which  soon  brought  him  into 
hostility  with  Congress.  His  position 
was  one  of  the  greatest  difficulty,  and 
his  vigorous  adherence  to  his  personal 
views  simply  added  to  the  difficulty, 
without  enabling  him  to  carry  out  one 
of  his  proposed  measures.  Congress, 
which  would  have  acted  in  concert 

with  Lincoln,  acted  in  opposition  to  Johnson,  and  was  forced 
into  severer  measures  than  it  would  probably  have  adopted 
had  Lincoln  survived. 

1  Andrew  Johnson,  the  seventeenth  United  States  President,  was 
born  in  North  Carolina  in  1808.  His  educational  advantages  were 
meagre,  but  he  took  every  opportunity  to  study  during  his  apprentice 
ship  to  a  tailor.  He  learned  to  write  after  his  marriage.  Entering 
political  life,  he  occupied  several  State  offices,  was  sent  to  Congress  in 
1843,  and  afterward  served  as  governor  of  Tennessee  and  as  United 
States  Senator.  He  was  an  ardent  Democrat,  but  strongly  opposed  the 
412 


ANDKEW  JOHNSON. 


JOHNSON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  413 

The  Thirteenth  Amendment. — In  February,  1865,  while 
the  war  was  still  in  progress,  Congress  passed  a  bill  adding 
a  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  This  amendment  abolished  slavery  within  the 
Union,  completing  the  work  of  Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proc 
lamation.  It  was  adopted  by  the  requisite  three-fourths  of 
the  States  during  the  year,  and  became  a  law  December  18, 
1865. 

Loyal  State  Governments  Organized. — Congress  not 
being  in  session,  Johnson  proceeded  to  act  without  calling 
an  extra  session.  He  issued  (May  29,  1865)  a  proclamation 
of  pardon  to  the  people  of  the  seceded  States,  on  condition 
that  they  would  swear  to  "  faithfully  support,  protect,  and 
defend  the  Constitution  and  the  Union."  This  oath  was 
widely  taken.  In  four  of  the  States,  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
Arkansas,  and  Louisiana,  loyal  State  governments  were 
formed.  These  the  President  recognized,  and  authorized 
the  other  States  to  call  conventions  to  form  loyal  govern 
ments.  These  conventions  ratified  the  Thirteenth  Amend 
ment,  repealed  the  secession  ordinances,  and  repudiated  the 
war-debt  of  the  Confederacy.  This  done,  the  President 
considered  that  the  only  necessary  steps  had  been  taken, 
and  that  the  seceded  States  were  again  full  members  of  the 
Union,  a  view  with  which  Congress,  on  coming  together, 
did  not  agree. 

Preedmen's  Bureau. — The  new  Southern  governments, 
believing  that  the  negroes  would  not  work  in  a  state  of 
freedom,  passed  laws  with  severe  penalties  to  compel  them 

secession  of  Tennessee,  and  in  1862  was  made  military  governor  of 
that  State.  His  activity  in  this  position  won  him  the  nomination  to 
the  Vice-Presidency.  After  his  Presidential  term  he  remained  politi 
cally  active  and  was  again  elected  to  the  Senate  in  1875.  but  died 
during  that  year. 


414  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

to  work.  Congress,  fearing  that  a  condition  resembling  that 
of  slavery  would  be  produced,  organized  a  Freedmen's 
Bureau,  for  the  protection  of  the  recent  slaves.  It  passed 
also  a  Civil  Rights  Bill,  which  gave  the  freedmen  all  the 
rights  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  except  that  of  suffrage. 
Under  this  bill  no  Southerner  could  hold  office  until  he  took 
an  oath  that  he  had  taken  no  part  in  secession. 

The  Fourteenth  Amendment. — In  1866  another  amend 
ment  to  the  Constitution  was  passed  by  Congress,  and  was 
ratified  by  the  requisite  number  of  States  on  July  28, 1868. 

This  declared  that  no  State  should  deprive  any  citizen  of 
his  rights  ;  that  all  who  had  sworn  to  defend  the  Constitution 
and  had  taken  up  arms  against  it  should  be  ineligible  to 
office  (unless  made  eligible  by  Act  of  Congress) ;  and  that 
the  United  States  debt  should  be  valid,  but  no  debt  incurred 
by  insurrectionists  should  be  paid. 

Reconstruction  Acts. — Various  other  measures,  known 
as  Reconstruction  Acts,  were  passed.  All  these  acts  were 
vetoed  by  the  President,  and  were  passed  over  his  veto, 
while  the  feeling  of  irritation  between  the  President  and 
Congress  daily  grew  stronger.  Military  governments  were 
appointed  for  all  the  seceded  States  except  Tennessee,  which 
was  permitted  to  send  representatives  to  Congress  in  1866. 
The  military  government  of  each  State  was  to  continue  until 
a  convention,  chosen  by  voters  without  regard  to  race  or 
color,  should  frame  a  new  government  and  ratify  the  Four 
teenth  Amendment.  No  Confederate  leader  was  permitted 
to  vote  for  or  take  part  in  these  conventions. 

Six  States  Readmitted. — Under  this  law  six  States,  Ala 
bama,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Arkansas, 
and  Florida,  were  readmitted  to  the  Union,  and  sent  repre 
sentatives  to  Congress  in  June,  1868.  The  other  four  States 
refused  to  assent  to  the  law. 


JOHNSON'S   ADMINISTRATION.  415 

The  Carpet-Bag  Governments. — The  new  governments 
formed  were  anything  but  satisfactory.  The  "iron-clad 
oath,1'  as  the  oath  required  to  be  taken  was  called,  kept 
the  most  intelligent  of  the  people  out  of  office.  The  freed 
slaves,  who  were  given  the  right  of  suffrage  under  the 
provisional  governments,  formed  the  majority  in  several 
of  the  States,  and  their  complete  ignorance  of  political 
matters  led  to  an  unfortunate  state  of  affairs.  Advent 
urers  from  the  North — who  were  called  u  carpet-baggers," 
it  being  said  of  them  that  they  could  put  all  they  owned 
in  a  carpet-bag — made  their  way  south,  solicited  the  negro 
vote,  and  were  elected  to  office.  Many  of  the  recent  slaves 
were  sent  to  the  State  legislatures.  The  result  was  calami 
tous,  money  was  squandered  or  stolen,  and  the  States 
involved  were  nearly  ruined. 

Tenure  of  Office  Act.— By  1867  the  hostility  between 
the  President  and  Congress  grew  so  great  that  Congress  took 
steps  to  reduce  the  President's  power.  An  act,  called  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Act,  was  passed,  which  forbade  the  Pres 
ident  to  remove  certain  officials  without  the  consent  of  the 
Senate.  This  bill  was  promptly  vetoed,  but  was  passed 
over  the  veto  on  March  2,  1867. 

This  measure  angered  the  President,  and  he  quickly 
showed  his  intention  to  ignore  it.  He  asked  Edwin  Stanton, 
Secretary  of  War,  whom  he  disliked,  to  resign.  Stanton 
declined,  whereupon  Johnson  removed  him  from  office  and 
appointed  Lorenzo  Thomas  in  his  place. 

Impeachment  of  the  President. — Congress  met  again  in 
December,  and  the  Senate  refused  to  confirm  the  President's 
action.  As  a  result  Stanton  resumed  his  official  position. 
The  President  thereupon  directed  Thomas  to  perform  the 
duties  of  the  office.  This  setting  aside  an  act  of  Congress 
was  a  grave  matter,  and  in  February  the  House  of  Repre- 


416  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   NEW   NATION. 

sentatives,  on  this  and  other  charges,  impeached  the  Pres 
ident  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

The  charge  was  a  serious  one.  No  President  had  ever 
before  been  so  accused.  Under  it  he  was  subject  to  a  trial 
before  the  Senate,  and  if  found  guilty  would  be  incapable 
of  holding  office.  In  such  a  case  the  presiding  officer  of  the 
Senate  would  have  succeeded  him  as  President. 

The  trial  was  long  continued,  lasting  from  March  5  to  May 
16,  1868.  Chief  Justice  Chase  presided  over  the  Senate, 
which  sat  as  a  court.  A  two-thirds  vote  was  necessary  for 
conviction.  When  the  vote  was  taken  there  was  one  less 
than  the  required  number.  The  President  was  therefore 
acquitted.  His  term,  however,  was  nearing  its  end,  as  his 
Presidency  would  end  in  less  than  a  year. 

Amnesty. — On  Christmas-day,  1868,  President  Johnson 
issued  a  proclamation  of  "full  pardon  and  amnesty"  to 
those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  "  late  rebellion."  This 
did  not  restore  their  political  rights,  which  could  only  be 
done  by  Congress. 

Maximilian  in  Mexico. — During  our  Civil  War,  Napoleon 
III.,  Emperor  of  France,  found  a  pretext  to  interfere  in 
Mexico,  and  sent  an  army  there,  though  Secretary  Seward 
warned  him  that  his  action  would  be  resented  by  the  United 
States,  as  contrary  to  the  Monroe  doctrine.  Napoleon  pro 
posed  to  found  an  empire  in  Mexico,  and  selected  as  em 
peror  Maximilian,  an  Austrian  archduke.  In  1865  our 
government  gave  Napoleon  plainly  to  understand  that  it 
would  be  wise  for  him  to  remove  his  army.  He  did  so, 
therefore,  but  Maximilian  remained.  As  a  result  the  repub 
licans  of  Mexico  rose  in  arms,  defeated  his  army,  captured 
and  shot  him.  The  empire  was  at  an  end  and  the  republic 
was  re-established. 

The  Fenians. — In  1866  the  Fenians,  an  organization  of 


JOHNSON'S   ADMINISTRATION.  417 

Irish-Americans,  fancied  that  they  could  aid  their  native 
country  by  invading  Canada.  A  considerable  number  of 
them  crossed  the  boundary-line,  but  the  President  issued  a 
proclamation  which  soon  settled  the  disturbance. 

The  Atlantic  Telegraph. — Another  important  matter  was 
the  laying  of  a  successful  ocean  telegraph.  This  was  ac 
complished  in  1866,  by  Cyrus  W.  Field,  the  projector  of  the 
first  ocean  cable.  Since  that  time  telegraph  communication 
with  Europe  has  been  constant  and  many  other  cables  have 
been  laid.1 

Purchase  of  Alaska. — In  1867,  Russia  offered  her  terri 
tory  in  America,  known  as  Russian  America,  to  this  country, 
for  the  price  of  seven  million  two  hundred  thousand  dol 
lars.  The  purchase  was  made,  though  many  objected  to  it. 
It  has  proved  a  wise  one,  the  country  being  rich  in  furs, 
fishes,  timber,  gold,  and  other  valuable  materials.  This 
territory,  since  known  as  Alaska,  is  nearly  six  hundred  thou 
sand  square  miles  in  area.  Nebraska,  the  thirty-seventh 
State,  was  admitted  to  the  Union  March  1,  1867. 

Treaty  with  China. — In  1868  a  treaty  with  China  was 
negotiated,  by  Anson  Burlingame,  formerly  minister  to  that 
country.  It  was  the  first  treaty  that  China  had  ever  made 
with  a  foreign  nation  except  under  compulsion. 

1  The  first  Atlantic  cable,  laid  in  1857,  proved  a  failure.  A  cable 
laid  in  July,  1858,  worked  successfully  for  a  short  time,  but  ceased  to 
work  on  September  1,  while  a  celebration  in  honor  of  its  success  was 
being  held  in  New  York.  Mr.  Field  continued  his  efforts,  and  a  new 
cable  was  made  in  1865,  but  it  parted  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean  and 
sunk  to  the  bottom.  Undismayed,  he  formed  a  new  company  and  had 
a  new  cable  made.  This  was  laid  in  June,  1866,  and  proved  success 
ful.  Then  the  cable  of  1865  was  raised  by  means  of  grappling-irons, 
spiked,  and  its  laying  completed.  Both  cables  worked  admirably.  A 
battery  made  in  a  gun-cap  has  sent  a  telegraph  message  across  the 
ocean. 

27 


418  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

Presidential  Election  of  1868.— In  1868  the  Republican 
party  nominated  as  its  candidate  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  the  great 
general  of  the  war,  Schuyler  Colfax,  of  Indiana,  being  asso 
ciated  with  him  as  Vice-President.  The  Democratic  party 
nominated  Horatio  Seymour,  late  governor  of  New  York. 
Grant  received  two  hundred  and  fourteen  electoral  votes 
out  of  two  hundred  and  ninety-four,  and  was  elected. 

2*  Grant's  HDtntnistration, 

Harmony  Restored. — The  inauguration  of  General  Grant l 
as  President  of  the  United  States  put  an  end  to  the  unfor 
tunate  controversy  between  the  ex 
ecutive  and  legislative  branches  of 
the  government  which  had  existed 
for  four  years,  and  which  had  worked 
to  the  disadvantage  of  the  parties 
immediately  concerned,  the  seced 
ing  States  of  the  South.  With  the 
accession  of  President  Grant  har 
mony  between  the  several  branches 
of  the  government  was  restored  and 
ULYSSES  s.  GRANT.  the  period  of  hostile  relations  came 

to  an  end. 

The  Fifteenth  Amendment. — The  privilege  of  the  suf 
frage  which  had  been  given  to  the  negroes  under  the  pro 
visional  governments  of  the  Southern  States  was  confirmed 

1  In  1877,  on  the  close  of  Grant's  second  term,  he  made  a  tour  of  the 
world,  visiting  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  India,  China,  and  Japan.  He 
was  looked  upon  as  the  foremost  military  genius  of  the  age,  and  his 
journey  was  an  ovation  from  beginning  to  end,  all  nations  seeking  to 
do  him  honor.  He  died  of  cancer,  at  Mount  McGregor,  New  York,  in 
1885.  His  magnificent  tomb  on  the  Hudson  has  become  a  place  of  pil 
grimage  to  visitors  to  New  York  City. 


GRANT'S   ADMINISTRATION.  419 

in  a  new  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  which  provided 
that  the  right  to  vote  in  any  part  of  this  country  should  not 
be  denied  "  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition 
of  servitude."  This  gave  to  negroes  the  same  rights  of 
voting  as  to  whites.  It  was  adopted  by  the  requisite  num 
ber  of  States  in  1870.  The  adoption  of  the  three  new 
amendments  was  required  of  the  four  States — Virginia, 
Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Texas — still  without  representa 
tion  in  Congress.  This  was  done,  and  they  were  read 
mitted  in  1870. 

The  Alabama  Claims. — The  end  of  the  war  was  quickly 
followed  by  a  demand  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  for 
redress  from  Great  Britain  for  the  damages  caused  by  the 
privateer  Alabama,  which  had  been  built  in  England  and 
sailed  from  an  English  port.  A  strong,  almost  warlike, 
feeling  arose,  but  in  the  end,  by  a  treaty  made  at  Wash 
ington,  both  countries  agreed  to  submit  the  matter  to  arbi 
tration.  A  commission  of  five  men,  appointed  by  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  -Brazil, 
met  in  Geneva  in  1872.  This  board  found  Great  Britain  in 
fault,  and  decided  that  she  should  pay  this  country  fifteen 
million  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  for  the  damage  sus 
tained.  This  is  known  as  the  "  Geneva  award." 

Other  Arbitrations. — Other  questions  were  settled  by 
arbitration.  In  1872  the  Emperor  of  Germany  decided  a 
dispute  about  the  Northwest  boundary  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  1877  a  board  of  arbitration  settled  certain  disputes 
between  the  American  and  Canadian  fishermen.  The  latter 
decision  went  against  the  United  States,  which  was  ordered 
to  pay  five  million  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  to  Great 
Britain.  These  settlements  by  arbitration  are  of  great  im 
portance.  Disputes  no  greater  than  those  thus  acted  upon 
in  former  times  often  led  to  war. 


420 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   NEW  NATION. 


Railroad  Extension. — The  conclusion  of  the  war  was 
followed  by  an  era  of  rapid  railroad  construction,  and 
during  the  period  of  Grant's  first  term  thousands  of  miles 
of  railroad  were  built.  Of  these  enterprises  much  the  most 
important  was  the  railroad  to  the  Pacific,  which  was  com- 


MEETING  OF  THE  UNION  AND  CENTRAL  PACIFIC  RAILROADS. 

pleted  May  10,  1869.  This  great  work,  which  was  aided  by 
liberal  grants  from  Congress,  completed  a  continuous  line 
of  rail  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  a  distance  of  over 
three  thousand  three  hundred  miles.1  Since  then  several 

1  This  railroad  was  begun  during  the  Civil  War.  It  consisted  of 
two  separate  roads,  which  met  at  Ogden,  Utah,  the  Union  Pacific, 
which  was  built  westward  one  thousand  and  twenty-nine  miles  from 
Omaha,  and  the  Central  Pacific,  which  extended  eastward  eight  hun 
dred  and  seventy-eight  miles  from  San  Francisco.  The  last  spike, 
connecting  these  roads,  was  driven  at  Ogden,  May  10,  1869.  The 
spike  was  connected  with  telegraph  wires,  and  each  blow  on  it  was 


GRANT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  421 

other  railroads  have  been  built  across  the  continent,  and  a 
traveller  can  go  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  to-day  in 
less  time  than  it  took  to  go  from  Boston  to  Washington  a 
century  ago,  and  with  far  more  ease  and  comfort. 

The  Weather  Bureau. — Congress  in  1870  established  a 
Weather  Bureau,  for  the  purpose  of  making  and  publishing 
accurate  observations  on  the  weather.  This  has  been  of 
immense  service  in  advising  the  people  of  the  approach  of 
storms,  changes  in  temperature,  etc.  It  was  long  under  the 
care  of  the  Signal  Service  of  the  Army,  but  was  transferred 
in  1891  to  the  Agricultural  Department  of  the  government. 

Chicago  and  Boston  Fires. — In  1871  there  took  place  in 
Chicago  what  was  perhaps  the  most  destructive  conflagra 
tion  recorded  in  history.  It  started  on  the  evening  of  Oc 
tober  9,  in  a  stable,  and  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by  a 
cow  kicking  over  an  oil-lamp.  It  raged  frightfully  for  two 
days,  aided  by  a  high  wind,  and  passed  through  the  richest 
part  of  the  city  to  the  lake.  More  than  three  square  miles 
were  burned  over,  two  hundred  million  dollars'  worth  of 
property  was  destroyed,  more  than  two  hundred  persons 
were  killed,  and  one  hundred  thousand  were  rendered 
homeless.  About  a  year  later  a  great  fire  in  Boston  de 
stroyed  nearly  eighty  million  dollars'  worth  of  property. 
The  burned  districts  were  rapidly  rebuilt,  with  handsomer 
buildings  than  before.1 


telegraphed  throughout  the  Union.  Before  this  road  was  built  the 
mail  was  carried  to  the  Pacific  on  horseback  by  a  "pony  express,"  and 
afterward  by  a  line  of  stage-coaches. 

1  At  almost  the  same  time  as  the  Chicago  fire,  the  most  destructive 
forest  fires  ever  known  in  this  country  broke  out  in  Minnesota.  Wis 
consin,  and  Michigan.  Vast  wealth  in  timber  was  destroyed  and 
many  persons  lost  their  lives.  It  was  estimated  that  fifteen  hundred 
persons  perished  in  Wisconsin  alone. 


422  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW   NATION. 

The  Whiskey  Ring. — During  the  year  1872  a  combina 
tion  was  made  in  St.  Louis  to  defraud  the  government  by 
keeping  back  part  of  the  tax  on  whiskey  and  other  distilled 
liquors.  United  States  revenue  officers  were  concerned  in 
this  with  the  distillers.  During  the  next  two  years  this 
scheme  of  fraud  grew  extensive,  and  spread  to  other  cities. 
It  was  discovered  in  1875,  and  more  than  two  hundred 
persons  were  indicted  for  conspiracy.  It  was  shown  that 
the  government  had  been  robbed  of  nearly  two  million 
dollars. 

The  Credit  Mobilier. — A  corporation  known  by  the 
French  title  of  Credit  Mobilier  had  been  organized  for  the 
construction  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad.  In  1872,  during 
the  Presidential  campaign,  charges  were  brought  against 
certain  Republican  members  of  Congress  to  the  effect  that 
they  had  accepted  presents  of  stock  from  this  company,  in 
return  for  which  they  were  to  use  their  influence  in  its 
favor.  An  investigation  was  ordered  by  Congress.  As  a 
result  two  members  were  censured  for  receiving  bribes,  and 
others  sank  in  public  estimation. 

The  Pranking  Privilege. — Abuses  had  also  arisen  in 
relation  to  the  franking  privilege. — the  sending  and  re 
ceiving  of  mail  matter  free  by  Congressmen  and  officials. 
Such  quantities  of  matter  were  sent  free  through  the  mails 
as  to  add  greatly  to  the  expense  of  the  postal  service.  This 
abuse  was  now  checked,  and  only  communications  on  offi 
cial  business  and  publications  authorized  by  Congress  were 
permitted  to  be  sent.  But  an  allowance  for  postage  was 
made  to  each  Congressman. 

The  Salary  Grab. — In  the  same  Congress — that  of  1873 
— a  bill  was  passed  which  raised  the  salaries  of  many  offi 
cials  of  the  government,  the  salary  of  the  President  being 
increased  from  twenty-five  thousand  to  fifty  thousand 


GRANT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  423 

dollars  a  year,  and  those  of  Congressmen  from  five  thou 
sand  to  seven  thousand  five  hundred  dollars.  To  this  no 
public  objection  would  likely  have  been  made.  The  sala 
ries  of  officials  in  this  country  had  always  been  small  as 
compared  with  those  paid  in  other  large  nations.  But  Con 
gress  went  further,  and  dated  the  increase  in  the  salary  of 
members  back  to  1871.  This  raised  a  storm  of  disap 
proval.  The  measure  was  called  the  "  Salary-Grab  Bill," 
and  was  so  bitterly  opposed  that  Congress  repealed  it  at 
the  next  session. 

The  Indian  Question. — In  the  earlier  days  of  this  coun 
try  the  Indians  east  of  the  Mississippi  had  made  much 
trouble  for  the  whites.  Now  the  Indians  west  of  the  Mis 
sissippi  were  to  be  dealt  with.  There  had  been  outbreaks 
of  the  Sioux  Indians  during  the  war  and  in  1866.  Other 
troubles  arose  during  Grant's  administration.  In  1872  it 
was  proposed  to  move  the  Modoc  Indians  of  Oregon  from 
one  reservation  to  another.  They  refused  to  move,  retired 
to  a  rugged  and  difficult  territory  known  as  the  "Lava 
Beds,"  and  for  a  year  resisted  the  troops.  Few  of  them 
were  left  at  the  end  of  the  conflict,  and  these  were  sent  to 
Indian  Territory.1 

The  Sioux  War. — In  1876,  near  the  end  of  Grant's 
second  term,  a  war  broke  out  with  the  Sioux  Indians,  who 
refused  to  move  from  the  Black  Hills  of  Dakota.  Gold  had 
been  discovered  in  this  region,  and  it  was  wanted  for  the 

1  In  Grant's  first  annual  message  he  announced  "  a  new  policy 
toward  these  wards  of  the  nation  by  giving  the  management  of  a  few 
reservations  of  Indians  to  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends."  At  a 
later  date  other  reservations  were  intrusted  to  other  religious  sects. 
This  new  policy  has  worked  well,  though  it  had  to  contend  with  the 
injustice  and  frauds  of  the  Indian  agents.  It  has  given  rise  to  an 
"  Indian  Rights  Association." 


424 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   NEW   NATION. 


whites,  but  the  Sioux,  under  their  leader,  Sitting  Bull,  fought 
fiercely.  During  the  contest  General  Ouster,  a  brave  cav 
alry  leader  of  the  Civil  War,  with  a  small  force,  was  attacked 
on  the  Little  Big  Horn  River  by  ten  times  his  number  of 
Indians,  and  he  and  his  entire  regiment  were  killed,  the 
savages  giving  no  quarter.  In  the  end  Sitting  Bull  and  his 
followers  fled  to  Canada. 


BATTLE  AT  THE  LITTLE  BIG  HOKN. 

The  Election  of  1872. — A  new  party  arose  in  1872, 
under  the  name  of  Liberal  Republicans.  It  advocated  the 
removal  of  troops  from  the  South  and  civil  service  reform. 
Since  the  "  spoils  system"  had  been  instituted  by  President 
Jackson  the  number  of  places  under  the  government  had 
very  greatly  increased.  These  positions  were  given  out  by 
Congressmen  and  others  in  reward  for  political  services, 
A  reform  in  this  abuse  was  badly  needed,  and  a  conven- 


GRANT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  425 

tion  was  held  by  the  new  organization,  which  nominated 
Horace  Greeley,  publisher  and  editor  of  the  New  York 
Tribune. 

The  Democratic  party  accepted  Greeley  as  its  candidate 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  had  been  one  of  its  most  active 
opponents.  Grant  was  renominated  by  the  Republican 
party.  Of  the  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  electoral  votes 
cast  Grant  received  two  hundred  and  eighty-six.  Henry 
Wilson,  of  Massachusetts,  was  elected  Vice-President. 
Greeley  died  before  the  electoral  votes  were  cast. 

A  Prosperous  Period. — The  four  years  of  Grant's  first 
administration  were  years  of  prosperity.  The  steady  de 
velopment  of  gold-  and  silver-mines  added  greatly  to  the 
wealth  of  the  country,  the  production  of  coal,  iron,  and 
petroleum  was  increased,  the  area  of  wheat  production 
expanded,  manufactures  were  active,  and  all  branches  of 
industry  improved.  But  this  activity  of  business  gave  rise 
to  an  activity  of  speculation  that  yielded  its  natural  result, 
a  business  depression  of  unsurpassed  severity. 

The  Panic  of  1873. — The  speculative  movement  took 
largely  the  direction  of  very  rapid  railroad-building,  the 
railroad  mileage  of  this  country  being  increased  more  than 
fifty  per  cent,  during  Grant's  first  term.  The  total  mileage 
became  equal  to  that  of  all  Europe.  In  October,  1873,  a 
prominent  banking-house  of  Philadelphia,  largely  interested 
in  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  failed.  Failures  in  all 
directions  followed,  manufactories  ceased  their  operations, 
banks  closed  their  doors,  arid  there  was  inaugurated  a 
severe  and  wide-spread  panic,  whose  effects  did  not  fully 
pass  away  for  six  years. 

The  Centennial  Anniversary. — The  4th  of  July,  1876, 
was  the  centennial  or  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  signing 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  It  was  resolved  to 


426  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

celebrate  this  by  a  great  World's  Fair,  to  be  held  at  Phila 
delphia,  in  which  city  the  Declaration  had  been  signed. 
The  business  depression  interfered  in  a  measure  with  the 
success  of  this  enterprise,  but  as  an  exhibition  of  the 
world's  products  it  was  of  unsurpassed  extent  and  value. 
The  Main  Hall  covered  twenty  acres,  and  many  other  large 
buildings  were  erected,  all  filled  with  objects  of  art  and 
industry.  Over  ten  million  persons  visited  the  grounds. 
In  art  products  it  was  found  that  the  nations  of  Europe 
far  surpassed  this  country,  and  in  this  direction  the  exhibi 
tion  had  a  great  educational  value.  In  the  results  of  inven 
tive  genius  the  United  States  was  unequalled.  The  most 
striking  of  these  inventions  was  the  telephone,  then  first 
exhibited. 

Colorado  Admitted. — Colorado  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  in  1876,  and  from  this  fact  it  is  often  called  the 
"  Centennial  State."  It  had  grown  rapidly  in  consequence 
of  its  rich  mines  of  silver  and  other  minerals,  but  it  has 
also  proved  well  adapted  to  grazing,  and  agriculture  has 
been  much  developed  through  irrigation. 

The  Election  of  1876.— In  the  political  campaign  of  1876 
much  use  was  made  by  the  Democratic  party  of  the  fact  that 
W.  W.  Belknap,  the  Secretary  of  War,  had  been  charged 
with  receiving  bribes  from  office-seekers.  He  was  im 
peached,  but  had  resigned  before  the  impeachment.  The 
court  of  impeachment  did  not  convict  him,  but  the  charges 
against  him  were  used  with  effect  against  his  party.  The 
Republicans  nominated  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  and 
William  A.  Wheeler,  of  New  York.  The  Democrats  nomi 
nated  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  of  New  York,  and  Thomas  A.  Hen- 
dricks,  of  Indiana.  Nominations  were  also  made  by  the 
National  Greenback  party,  which  claimed  that  the  currency 
of  the  country  should  be  paper  money  issued  by  the  gov- 


GRANT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  427 

ernment,  and  the  Prohibition  party,  which  opposed  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  After  the 
election  it  was  found  that  the  result  was  very  close  between 
Hayes  and  Tilden,  and  that  the  decision  rested  principally 
upon  the  votes  of  Florida  and  Louisiana. 

Returning-  Boards. — In  the  South  there  existed  "  Return 
ing  Boards,"  whose  duty  it  was  to  receive  the  election  returns 
and  count  the  votes.  From  their  decision  there  was  no 
appeal.  In  Florida  and  Louisiana  the  largest  number  of 
votes  were  returned  for  the  Democratic  candidates.  But 
the  Boards  in  those  States  declared  that  there  were  errors 
in  certain  districts,  whose  votes  they  refused  to  count.  In 
consequence  they  declared  that  the  Republican  candidates 
were  elected.  The  election  in  South  Carolina  was  also 
claimed  by  both  parties,  and  there  was  one  elector  in  dispute 
in  Oregon. 

The  Electoral  Commission. — The  Democrats  claimed 
that  the  election  was  legally  theirs  and  that  they  had  been 
defrauded  by  the  Returning  Boards.  As  the  electoral  vote 
was  disputed,  the  matter  came  before  Congress  for  decision. 
But  here  the  House  had  a  Democratic  and  the  Senate  a 
Republican  majority,  and  there  seemed  no  hope  of  an  agree 
ment.  What  was  to  be  done  was  not  clear.  The  dispute 
might  lead  to  civil  war,  and  great  anxiety  was  felt. 

In  the  end  Congress  decided  to  refer  the  disputed  votes 
to  an  Electoral  Commission,  composed  of  five  Senators,  five 
Representatives,  and  five  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
Seven  Republicans  and  seven  Democrats  were  chosen,  while 
the  fifteenth,  Judge  David  Davis,  was  independent  in  politics. 
But  before  the  court  sat  he  was  elected  Senator  from  Illinois 
and  resigned  from  the  Supreme  Court.  He  was  replaced 
by  a  Republican  judge,  which  gave  the  Republicans  a  ma 
jority  in  the  Commission.  The  court  decided,  by  a  vote 


428 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW   NATION. 


of  eight  to  seven,  to  accept  the  decision  of  the  Returning 
Boards  in  each  case.  This  gave  Hayes  one  hundred  and 
eighty-five  votes  to  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  for  Tilden. 
Hayes  was  therefore  declared  elected  on  the  morning  of 
March  3. 

3.  IHages's  Bfcmintstration. 

A  New  Policy. — Though  the  Democratic  party  had  vig 
orously  opposed  the  election  of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,1  his 
policy  proved  in  several  respects  to 
be  that  which  they  advocated.  He 
believed  that  the  troubles  in  the 
Southern  States  would  never  cease 
while  the  national  government  inter 
fered  in  their  internal  affairs.  He 
therefore  withdrew  the  United  States 
troops  from  that  section  of  the  coun 
try,  trusting  that  the  whites  and  blacks 
would  come  to  some  amicable  settle 
ment  of  their  difficulties.  As  a  result 
the  negro  rule  in  the  legislatures  of 

the  South  came  to  an  end.  The  President's  action  was 
severely  condemned  by  many  Republicans,  yet  it  was  ap 
proved  by  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  and  put  an  end  to 
the  political  strife  which  had  continued  since  the  war. 

Resumption  of  Specie  Payments. — President  Hayes  was 
also  an  advocate  of  civil  service  reform,  or  the  removal  of 

1  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1822.  He  graduated  at 
Kenyon  College,  studied  at  the  Harvard  Law  School,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1845.  Like  all  the  Presidents  after  the  Civil  War  except 
Cleveland,  he  had  served  as  a  soldier,  becoming  major  of  the  Twenty- 
third  Ohio,  and  rising  to  the  grade  of  brigadier-general.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1865,  and  was  governor  of  Ohio  for  three  terms. 
He  lived  in  retirement  after  his  Presidential  term,  and  died  in  1893. 


RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES. 


HAYES'S   ADMINISTRATION.  429 

office-holding  from  political  control,  and  of  the  early  resump 
tion  of  specie  payments.  Since  the  war  the  paper  money 
of  the  country  had  been  depreciated  in  value,  and  gold  had 
passed  out  of  circulation.  At  one  time  it  took  nearly  three 
dollars  in  paper  to  equal  a  dollar  in  gold.  But  as  the  years 
went  on  the  premium  demanded  for  gold  grew  less,  and  in 
1875  Congress  passed  a  bill  providing  that  on  and  after 
January  1,  1879,  the  paper  money  of  the  United  States 
should  be  redeemed  in  coin  at  the  Treasury. 

Many  believed  this  could  not  be  done,  but  it  was.  Gold 
was  gradually  accumulated  in  the  Treasury,  and  on  the  1st 
of  January,  1879,  John  Sherman,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
announced  that  he  would  give  gold  for  any  United  States 
notes  presented  for  payment.  This  announcement  sufficed. 
Few  notes  were  presented.  From  that  time  on  paper  money 
has  been  worth  its  face  value  in  gold,  and  the  credit  of  the 
country  has  grown  so  good  that  the  old  six  per  cent,  loans 
have  been  replaced  by  loans  at  much  lower  rates  of  inter 
est.  Many  millions  of  dollars  in  interest  have  thus  been 
saved. 

The  Gold  Reserve. — It  was  also  provided  that  one  hun 
dred  million  dollars  in  gold  should  always  be  kept  in  the 
Treasury,  to  form  a  gold  reserve  with  which  to  redeem  the 
government  paper  money.  This  has  not  always  been  pos 
sible.  The  great  demand  for  gold  in  the  years  1894-96 
reduced  the  reserve  much  below  this  sum.  It  was  restored, 
however,  during  the  latter  part  of  1896. 

Silver  Legislation. — Up  to  1873  only  about  eight  million 
silver  dollars  had  been  coined  in  the  United  States.  By  a 
law  passed  in  1873  the  silver  dollar  ceased  to  be  coined. 
Soon  afterward  the  discovery  of  new  and  rich  mines 
greatly  added  to  the  production  of  silver,  and  a  demand 
grew  up  that  the  coinage  of  silver  should  be  renewed  and 


430  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   NEW  NATION. 

that  it  should  again  be  made  a  legal  tender  for  debts.  In 
1878  a  bill,  known  as  the  Bland  Silver  Bill,  was  passed, 
requiring  the  government  to  coin  not  less  than  two  million 
or  more  than  four  million  silver  dollars  per  month.  Pres 
ident  Hayes  vetoed  the  bill,  but  it  was  passed  over  his  veto. 
This  law  continued  in  force  until  1890. 

The  Railroad  and  Coal  Strikes. — The  business  depres 
sion  which  began  in  1873  had  caused  a  lowering  of  wages 
in  many  industries.  In  1877  several  railroad  companies 
reduced  the  wages  of  their  men.  There  followed  one  of 
the  most  threatening  and  costly  strikes  ever  known  in  this 
country.  The  strike,  or  refusal  to  work,  was  general  among 
railroad  employes  in  the  Northern  States  west  of  New  Eng 
land.  Other  men  were  prevented  from  taking  the  places 
of  the  strikers,  and  for  two  weeks  the  movements  of  trains 
were  widely  prevented.  In  Pennsylvania  the  coal-miners 
joined  the  strike,  and  in  all  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  men  stopped  work. 

The  strike  was  followed  by  rioting,  destruction  of  prop 
erty,  and  bloodshed.  The  riots  were  most  serious  in  Pitts- 
burg,  where  the  militia  sent  to  suppress  them  were  attacked 
by  the  mob,  freight-cars  were  plundered  and  burned,  and 
railroad  buildings  were  reduced  to  ashes.  More  than  three 
million  dollars'  worth  of  property  was  destroyed  and  nearly 
one  hundred  lives  were  lost.  In  the  end  soldiers  of  the 
regular  army  had  to  be  sent  to  Pittsburg  to  suppress  the 
riots. 

The  Mississippi  Jetties. — An  industrial  event  of  very 
different  character  took  place  during  this  administration. 
For  years  the  Mississippi  River  had  been  growing  shallower 
near  its  mouth  from  the  great  amount  of  sediment  brought 
down  and  deposited  by  the  stream.  This  interfered  with 
navigation  and  caused  the  river  frequently  to  overflow  its 


HAYES'S  ADMINISTRATION.  431 

banks.  The  largest  vessels  could  no  longer  reach  New 
Orleans,  even  by  the  deepest  channel  of  the  river. 

This  difficulty  was  overcome  by  Captain  James  B.  Eads, 
who  had  built  a  splendid  bridge  across  the  river  at  St. 
Louis.  He  proposed  to  narrow  the  river,  so  as  to  make 
the  current  swifter  and  cause  it  to  deepen  its  channel.  This 
he  was  permitted  to  try,  and  he  succeeded  by  building  jet 
ties,  or  sunken  walls  of  wicker-work  filled  with  earth,  along 
each  side.  The  result  was  a  great  success.  The  narrow 
and  swift  stream  swept  out  the  sediment  from  its  channel, 
which  became  so  deep  that  the  largest  vessels  were  able 
easily  to  come  up  to  New  Orleans. 

Yellow  Fever  in  the  South. — A  terrible  epidemic  of  yel 
low  fever  broke  out  in  portions  of  the  South  in  the  years 
1877  and  1878.  It  was  particularly  destructive  in  Memphis 
and  New  Orleans,  largely  on  account  of  their  lack  of  sani 
tary  regulations.  More  than  fifteen  thousand  people  died 
in  1878.  Since  then  strict  laws  have  been  enacted,  and 
the  healthfulness  of  these  cities  has  greatly  increased.  In 
Memphis  new  systems  of  drainage  were  adopted,  the  city 
was  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  rigid  sanitary  methods  were 
applied. 

The  Election  of  1880. — In  the  Presidential  election  of 
1880,  James  A.  Garfield  and  Chester  A.  Arthur  were  the 
Republican  candidates.  The  Democrats  nominated  General 
Winfield  S.  Hancock,  a  distinguished  soldier  of  the  war,  and 
William  H.  English.  The  election  resulted  in  the  success  of 
the  Republican  party,  whose  candidates  received  two  hun 
dred  and  fourteen  electoral  votes  against  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five  for  the  Democratic  candidates. 


432  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW   NATION. 

4.  Ube  (Barffelfc  anfc  Hrtbur  Hfcmtntstrattons, 

Assassination   of    the   President. — President    Garfield1 
took  his  seat  on  the  4th  of  March,  1881.     He  found  trouble 
awaiting  him.     The  feeling  in  favor  of  reform  in  the  civil 
service  had  grown  in  the  country,  and  met  with  the  sym 
pathy  of  the  President,  but  applications  for  office  came  to 
him  from  all  sides,  many  of  them  supported  by  members 
of   Congress.      The   Senators  from 
New  York  offered  a  candidate  for 
the  post  of  collector  of  the  port  of 
New    York    City.      The    President 
would    not   appoint    him,  and    the 
angry  Senators  resigned  their  seats. 
The  thirst  for  office  ended  in  mur 
der.     On  the  2d  of  July,  while  the 
President  was  standing  in  the  rail- 
JAMES  A.  GARFIELD.  road  station  at  Washington,  he  was 

shot  by  a  disappointed  office-seeker 

named  Guiteau  (ge-to).  For  weeks  he  lingered  in  suffering, 
the  sympathizing  people  in  hopes  of  his  recovery,  but  at 
length,  on  the  19th  of  September,  he  passed  away. 

Civil  Service  Reform. — This  dastardly  murder  had  one 
beneficial  effect,  that  of  inducing  Congress,  in  1883,  to  pass 

1  James  Abram  Garfield  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1831.  The  family  was 
very  poor,  but  by  hard  work  he  managed  to  obtain  admission  to  Wil 
liams  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1854.  He  became  a  professor  in 
Hiram  College,  was  elected  State  senator  in  1859,  and  in  1861  entered 
the  army  as  colonel.  He  took  part  in  several  battles,  was  made  major- 
general  in  1863,  and  soon  after  was  elected  to  Congress.  Here  he 
became  prominent  as  a  statesman  of  fine  ability.  In  1880  he  was 
elected  United  States  Senator,  but  before  he  took  his  seat  was  elected 
President. 


THE   GARFIELD  AND   ARTHUR   ADMINISTRATIONS.    433 

a  Civil  Service  Act,  which  was  intended  to  take  the  appoint 
ment  to  offices  out  of  the  President's  hands.  It  provided 
for  a  board  of  commissioners  and  for  the  appointment  to 
office  by  examination  of  candidates,  those  who  passed  high 
est  to  have  the  first  chance. 

The  act  also  provided  that  office-holders  under  the  gov 
ernment  should  not  be  asked  to  con 
tribute  money  for  political  purposes, 
and  should  not  take  an  active  part  in 
political  contests.1 

Arthur  Becomes  President. — The 
assassination  of  Garfield  lifted  Chester 
A.  Arthur2  to  the  Presidential  chair. 
It  was  the  fourth  time  a  Vice-Presi- 
dent  had  succeeded  the  President. 

•  ""     ^^ 

Arthur  had  been  nominated  for  polit-         CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR. 
ical  reasons,  and  was  looked  upon  as 

a  mere  politician.  But  he  proved  himself  more  than  this, 
and  filled  the  high  office  which  unexpectedly  came  to  him 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  people. 

Anti-Polygamy  Bill. — In  1882  Congress  passed  a  bill 


1  In  1881  there  were  in  the  country  (including  post-offices)  about  one 
hundred  and  forty  thousand  office-holders.   Since  then  this  number  has 
been  increasing.     At  first  only  a  few  offices  were  filled  under  the  new 
law,  but  the  number  has  steadily  increased,  and  now  nearly  all  the 
minor  offices,  except  the  post-offices,  are  filled  by  competitive  exami 
nation.    Garfield  was  a  martyr  of  the  spoils  system  introduced  by  Jack 
son.     His  death  gave  the  inspiration  to  a  great  reform. 

2  Chester  Alan  Arthur  was  born  in  Vermont  in  1830.     He  graduated 
at  Union  College,  became  a  teacher  and  then  a  lawyer,  and  during  the 
war  served  as  quartermaster-general  of  New  York.     He  was  appointed 
collector  of  the  port  of  New  York  in  1872  and  served  six  years.     He 
was  a  candidate  for  the  Presidential  nomination  in  1884,  but  was  un 
successful.     He  died  in  1886. 

28 


434  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

for  the  suppression  of  polygamy  by  the  Mormons  of  Utah, 
many  of  these  having  more  than  one  wife.  It  was  opposed 
at  first,  but  has  since  been  carried  out,  and  polygamy  is  at 
an  end. 

Industrial  Exhibitions. — During  Arthur's  administration 
several  industrial  exhibitions  were  held  in  the  South.  One 
of  these  was  held  at  Atlanta  in  1881,  and  one  at  Louisville 
in  1883.  A  more  important  one  was  held  at  New  Orleans 
in  1884,  under  the  title  of  "  The  World's  Industrial  and 
Cotton  Centennial  Exposition."  It  was  a  large  and  inter 
esting  exhibition  and  demonstrated  that  the  South  had  made 
great  progress  since  the  war.  In  1784  the  South  exported 
eight  bags — about  equal  to  one  bale — of  cotton.  Just  be 
fore  the  Civil  War  the  crop  reached  about  five  million  bales. 
In  1884\it  had  increased  to  eight  millions.  In  1860  there 
were  scarcely  any  manufactures  south  of  Maryland.  In 
1884  there  were  millions  of  dollars  invested  in  manufactures 
in  the  South.  And  agriculture  had  greatly  advanced  under 
free  labor,  vast  quantities  of  corn,  wheat,  fruits,  and  vege 
tables  beincr  raised. 

The  Wasning-ton  Monument. — Another  interesting  event 
of  the  Arthur  administration  was  the  completion  of  the 
Washington  Monument.  This  had  been  ordered  imme 
diately  after  the  death  of  Washington,  but  the  corner-stone 
was  not  laid  till  1848,  and  it  was  not  finished  till  1885. 
It  is  an  immense  obejisk  of  white  marble,  five  hundred 
and  fifty-five  feet  high,  and  forms  a  striking  feature  of  the 
architecture  of  the  city  of  Washington. 

Standard  Time. — An  important  event  was  the  adoption 
of  standard  time,  for  the  convenience  of  the  great  railroads 
running  east  and  west.  In  1883  the  country  was  divided 
into  four  sections,  throughout  each  of  which  the  same  time 
was  to  be  used,  while  the  time  would  vary  one  hour  from 


CLEVELAND'S  ADMINISTRATION.  435 

one  section  to  another.  Thus,  when  it  is  twelve  o'clock  in 
New  York,  it  is  eleven  at  Chicago,  ten  at  Denver,  and  nine 
at  San  Francisco,  and  the  same  in  all  parts  of  each  section. 

Election  of  1884. — In  the  Presidential  nominations  of 
1884  the  Democrats  selected  for  their  candidates  Grover 
Cleveland,  governor  of  New  York,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks, 
of  Indiana.  The  Republican  candidate  for  President  was 
James  G.  Elaine,  of  Maine,  a  prominent  statesman,  who  had 
been  three  times  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
John  A.  Logan  was  nominated  for  Vice-President.  There 
were  nominations  also  by  the  Prohibition  and  the  Greenback 
parties. 

A  number  of  independent  Republicans,1  who  were  op 
posed  to  Elaine,  voted  for  Cleveland,  and  succeeded  in  elect 
ing  him.  The  election  was  very  close,  the  result  deperfding 
on  the  vote  of  New  York,  which  went  for  Cleveland  by  a  few 
hundred  majority.  Elaine  received  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
two,  Cleveland  two  hundred  and  nineteen  electoral  votes. 

5,  Cleveland's  Bfcministraticm.      / 

Electoral  Count  Act. — The  administration  of  President 
Cleveland 2  was  marked  by  some  important  legislation.  The 


1  These  independent  voters  were  nicknamed  "  Mugwumps."     This  is 
an  Indian  word,  meaning  "  chief,"  but  was  applied  to  the  independents 
as  a  term  of  contempt. 

2  Grover  Cleveland  was  born  in  New  Jersey  fn  1837.     Soon  after  his 
father  moved  to  New  York.     At  eighteen,  his  father  having  died  and 
left  him  penniless,  he  began  the  study  of  law  at  Buffalo,  and  was  ad 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1859.     He  began  his  political  life  in  1863,  becom 
ing  successively  assistant  district  attorney,  sheriff,  and  mayor.     His 
high  reputation  for  integrity  won  him  the  nomination  for  governor  of 
New  York,  and  he  was  elected  by  a  very  large  majority  in  1882.     His 
increasing  reputation  for  unswerving  honesty  brought  him  the  nomi 
nation  for  President  in  1884. 


436  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

trouble  about  the  electoral  count  in  1876  and  the  murder 
of  Garfield  in  1881  had  shown  the  necessity  of  ready  means 
of  deciding  who  should  be  President  in 
any  such  contingency.  In  1887  a  bill 
was  passed  which  left  it  to  the  States 
to  decide  any  contest  in  them  regarding 
the  result  of  a  Presidential  election. 
Under  this  bill  a  decision  has  to  be 
reached  at  least  six  days  before  the 
electors  meet,  and  cannot  be  changed 

GKOVEK  CLEVELAND.  by  Congress. 

Interstate  Commerce  Act. — An 
other  important  law  enacted  in  1887  was  that  known  as  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Act,  which  was  intended  to  control 
railroad  traffic  from  State  to  State.  Its  main  purpose  was 
to  prevent  unfair  freight  charges  and  passenger  fares.  The 
abuse  of  free  passes  was  prohibited.  A  commission  of  five 
persons  was  appointed  to  oversee  the  execution  of  this  law. 

Chinese  Exclusion. — Another  law  of  great  importance 
was  that  passed  in  1888  for  the  exclusion  of  Chinese  laborers 
from  this  country.  A  treaty  had  been  made  with  China  in 
1868  which  opened  this  country  to  Chinese  immigration. 
By  1880  there  were  about  one  hundred  thousand  Chinese 
living  in  the  United  States.  After  that  date  they  came  much 
more  rapidly,  and  much  opposition  was  raised  in  the  labor 
ing  classes,  who  claimed  that  the  Chinese  worked  for  ruin 
ously  low  wages,  brought  no  families  with  them,  and  in 
tended  to  return  to  China  as  soon  as  they  had  made  enough 
money  to  live  on  in  their  simple  manner  at  home. 

The  opposition,  particularly  in  California,  grew  strong. 
An  agreement  was  made  with  China  in  1880,  restricting 
immigration.  The  law  of  1888  prohibited  it.  This  law  con 
tinues  in  effect,  and  the  number  of  Chinese  in  this  country 


CLEVELAND'S  ADMINISTRATION.  437 

is  decreasing,  as  many  have  returned  home,  and  others  can 
not  enter  to  replace  them. 

Labor  Troubles. — During  the  period  now  in  considera 
tion  the  organization  of  workingmen  had  greatly  increased, 
wide-spread  orders  being  formed  under  the  names  of  "  The 
Knights  of  Labor"  and  the  "  American  Federation  of  Labor." 
The  employers  also  formed  combinations  to  protect  their 
interests,  and  much  dissatisfaction  existed.  This  led,  in 
1886,  to  numerous  strikes,  which  took  place  in  many  parts 
of  the  country,  and  were  attended  in  some  cases  by  riotous 
actions. 

The  Chicago  Anarchists. — Of  these  riots  the  worst  oc 
curred  in  Chicago,  where  no  less  than  forty  thousand  men 
went  "  on  strike."  On  May  4  the  disorder  reached  its 
highest  point.  On  the  evening  of  that  day  a  crowd  gath 
ered  near  Haymarket  Square,  and  were  addressed  by 
speakers  in  such  violent  language  that  the  police  attempted 
to  disperse  them.  At  this  moment  a  dynamite  bomb  was 
thrown,  which  exploded  and  killed  several  of  the  policemen, 
while  sixty  were  badly  wounded.  Men  in  the  crowd  also 
fired  on  the  police.  The  officers  returned  the  fire,  killing 
and  wounding  a  large  number  of  the  mob. 

The  ringleaders  of  the  mob  were  arrested  and  tried  for 
murder.  All  but  one  were  of  foreign  birth,  and  were  found 
to  belong  to  the  organization  known  as  Anarchists,  whose 
object  it  is  to  overthrow  all  governments, — by  violence,  if  it 
cannot  be  done  by  peaceful  means.  Four  of  the  condemned 
were  hanged  -and  the  others  imprisoned  for  life.  Their 
action  was  denounced  by  the  workingmen  throughout  the 
country,  and  excited  general  horror  and  detestation. 

The  Charleston  Earthquake. — In  the  summer  of  1886 
the  most  destructive  earthquake  ever  known  in  this  country 
occurred  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  So  many  buildings 


438  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

were  shaken  down  or  badly  damaged  as  to  cause  a  loss  of 
over  five  million  dollars,  while  many  lives  were  lost.  Aid 
was  sent  from  all  parts  of  the  Union  to  the  suffering  people. 
Like  Chicago  and  Boston  after  their  fires,  Charleston  has 
fully  recovered  from  this  calamity. 

The  Election  of  1888.— In  the  election  year  of  1888  the 
Democratic  party  renominated  Grover  Cleveland,  with  Allen 
G.  Thurman,  of  Ohio,  for  Vice-President.  The  Republicans 
nominated  for  President  Benjamin  Harrison,  of  Indiana, 
grandson  of  the  former  President  Harrison.  Levi  P.  Morton, 
of  New  York,  was  nominated  for  Vice-President.  The  Pro 
hibition  and  the  United  Labor  parties  also  made  nomina 
tions.  The  election,  as  in  1884,  was  decided  by  the  vote 
of  New  York,  which  now  gave  a  plurality  for  the  Republican 
candidate.  Cleveland  received  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight 
and  Harrison  two  hundred  and  thirty-three  electoral  votes. 

6*  Benjamin  Harrison's  Hfcministration. 

The  Oklahoma  Opening1. — The  beginning  of  President 
Harrison's l  administration  was  signalized  by  the  opening  of 
the  Territory  of  Oklahoma  to  white  settlers.  Oklahoma  is 
a  large  tract,  of  over  thirty-nine  thousand  square  miles,  in 
the  centre  of  Indian  Territory.  It  was  purchased  from 
the  Indians,  and  settlers  were  permitted  to  enter  it  at  noon 
on  April  22,  1889,  at  which  hour  some  fifty  thousand  per 
sons  were  waiting  to  rush  in  and  take  up  claims  under  the 

1  Benjamin  Harrison  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1833.  His  great-grand 
father  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
his  grandfather  President  of  the  United  States  in  1840.  He  graduated 
in  1852  from  Miami  University,  studied  law,  and  in  1862  entered  the 
army  as  second  lieutenant  of  Indiana  volunteers,  ending  as  brevet 
brigadier-general.  In  1880  he  was  elected  United  States  Senator. 


BENJAMIN   HARRISON'S  ADMINISTRATION. 


439 


BENJAMIN  HARRISON. 


land  laws  of  the  United  States.     When  the  signal  was  given 
by  a  bugle  blast  there  was  a  wild  rush  across  the  border, 
and  before  night  much  of  the  terri 
tory  was  staked  out  in  claims,  and 
several  towns  were  begun.     In  1890 
the  new  Territory  had  over  sixty-one 
thousand   population.      Since   then 
Oklahoma  has  been  largely  increased 
in  size  by  the  purchase  of  lands  in 
the  north  of  Indian  Territory. 

New  States. — The  same  year 
(1889)  was  marked  by  a  notable 
addition  to  the  number  of  States, 
no  less  than  four  new  States  being 

admitted  to  the  Union.  These  were  North  Dakota,  South 
Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washington.  In  1890  two  other 
States,  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  were  admitted.  No  equal 
addition  to  our  family  of  States  had  been  made  in  any  pre 
vious  administration. 

The  Johnstown  Flood. — Shortly  after  Harrison  took  his 
seat  a  terrible  disaster  occurred  in  Central  Pennsylvania, 
far  surpassing  the  Chicago  fire  and  the  Charleston  earthquake 
in  the  destruction  of  human  life.  On  May  31, 1889,  a  large 
dam  gave  way,  and  a  torrent  of  water  forty  feet  high  swept 
down  the  Conemaugh  Valley  toward  Johnstown,  several 
miles  below.  This  busy  manufacturing  town  was  almost 
completely  swept  away,  about  two  thousand  two  hundred 
persons  were  drowned,  and  ten  million  dollars'  worth  of 
property  was  destroyed.  The  whole  country  vied  in  fur 
nishing  supplies  for  the  suffering  survivors. 

Pan-American  Congress. — An  interesting  event  of  the 
autumn  of  1889  was  the  meeting  at  Washington  of  the  Pan- 
American  Congress,  composed  of  delegates  from  the  United 


440  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

States,  Mexico,  and  the  nations  of  Central  and  South  Amer 
ica.  Its  purpose  was  to  bring  these  nations  into  a  close 
union  for  commercial  and  other  advantages.  It  was  recom 
mended  that  all  disputes  between  these  nations  should  be 
settled  by  arbitration,  but  no  specially  important  results 
came  from  the  Congress. 

Trouble  with  Chile. — The  wisdom  of  the  arbitration 
suggestion  was  soon  proved,  for  in  1891  the  United  States 
and  the  republic  of  Chile  were  brought  to  the  verge  of  war. 
A  revolution  had  broken  out  in  Chile,  and  during  its  course 
some  sailors  from  an  American  war-vessel  were  attacked  in 
Valparaiso  and  two  of  them  killed.  For  a  time  it  looked 
as  if  serious  trouble  would  result,  but  in  the  end  Chile  apol 
ogized,  and  contributed  a  satisfactory  sum  for  the  families 
of  the  slain  men. 

Trouble  with  Italy. — Another  international  difficulty 
arose  from  the  murder  of  the  chief  of  police  of  New 
Orleans  by  assassins  who  were  believed  to  belong  to  a 
secret  society  of  Italians.  A  number  of  men  were  ar 
rested,  of  whom  six  were  acquitted,  and  others  held  for 
trial.  These,  eleven  in  number,  were  taken  from  jail  by  a 
mob,  in  March,  1891,  and  executed  under  what  is  known  as 
"  lynch  law." 

The  Italian  government  protested  against  this  illegal  exe 
cution  of  its  subjects  and  demanded  reparation.  This  the 
United  States  refused,  saying  that  the  matter  must  be  settled 
by  the  State  of  Louisiana,  whereupon  the  Italian  minister 
left  Washington,  and  for  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  war  would 
ensue.  In  the  end  the  United  States  agreed  to  provide  sup 
port  for  the  families  of  those  of  the  victims  who  were  proved 
to  be  Italian  citizens. 

The  Bering-  Sea  Difficulty. — Still  another  international 
trouble  arose  during  the  Harrison  administration.  This  was 


BENJAMIN   HARRISON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  441 

in  relation  to  the  slaughter  of  fur  seals  in  Bering  Sea  by 
Canadians.  The  United  States  claimed  the  right  to  control 
the  seal-fisheries,  and  sent  out  armed  vessels  to  capture 
the  sealers.  A  controversy  arose  with  the  British  govern 
ment,  but  in  the  end  the  matter  was  settled  by  arbitration. 
The  seals  are  still  permitted  to  be  killed  at  sea  under  certain 
restrictions,  and  the  danger  of  their  extermination  continues. 

Indian  Troubles. — Troubles  with  hostile  Indians  had 
been  largely  brought  to  an  end  by  the  measures  taken  in 
the  recent  administrations.  But  in  1890  there  was  a  threat 
ened  outbreak  of  the  Sioux  from  the  belief  that  an  Indian 
Messiah  was  coming  to  avenge  their  wrongs.  Several  thou 
sand  of  them  gathered  in  December  at  Wounded  Knee, 
South  Dakota.  Here  the  troops  tried  to  disarm  them,  and 
a  battle  took  place,  in  which  about  two  hundred  were 
killed.  It  seems  likely  to  be  the  last  Indian  outbreak. 

Pensions. — Important  measures  of  legislation  took  place 
in  Congress,  of  which  the  leading  ones  concerned  the  cur 
rency  and  the  tariff.  A  pension  bill  was  passed  which 
greatly  increased  the  number  of  persons  to  whom  pensions 
are  paid.  Since  that  date  the  annual  payment  to  pensioners 
has  averaged  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  million  dollars. 
No  other  nation  has  ever  been  so  liberal  in  rewarding  its 
soldiers  and  sailors. 

Copyright. — Another  important  act  was  one  providing 
for  international  copyright.  Since  the  government  began 
any  publisher  could  print  a  foreign  book  without  paying 
anything  to  the  author.  The  new  law  put  a  stop  to  this 
practice,  which  had  long  been  looked  upon  as  a  species  of 
piracy. 

The  McKinley  Tariff.— From  the  period  of  the  Civil  War 
the  tariff  had  remained  practically  unchanged.  The  Re 
publicans  had  continued  in  power  except  during  the  Cleve- 


442  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

land  administration,  and  then  they  had  the  control  of  Con 
gress,  so  that  no  tariff  bill  lowering  the  duties  could  be 
passed.  In  1890  a  new  tariff  bill,  known  as  the  McKinley 
tariff,  was  enacted.  By  it  sugar  and  other  articles  were 
made  free  of  duty,  the  duty  was  lowered  on  many  articles, 
but  it  was  considerably  increased  on  various  others,  such 
as  wool.  It  was  advocated  not  as  a  revenue,  but  as  a  pro 
tection  measure,  it  being  passed  with  the  purpose  of  aiding 
American  manufactures. 

One  of  its  features  was  known  as  the  u  reciprocity  meas 
ure."  By  this  certain  articles  were  admitted  free  of  duty 
if  the  countries  from  which  they  came  admitted  certain 
American  articles  free.  This  applied  principally  to  the 
nations  of  America,  but  there  was  reciprocity  also  with 
some  European  nations. 

The  Sherman  Silver  Bill. — Another  act  passed  in  1890 
was  what  is  known  as  the  Sherman  Silver  Bill.  This  mod 
ified  the  Bland  Silver  Bill  of  1878  by  providing  that  four 
million  five  hundred  thousand  ounces  of  silver  should  be 
purchased  every  month,  at  market  price,  and  paid  for  by 
notes  redeemable  in  coin.  This  silver  bullion  was  to  be 
coined  into  dollars. 

The  Census  of  1890. — The  census  of  the  population, 
taken  in  1890,  showed  that  there  were  in  this  country 
62,622,250  people.  The  first  census,  taken  in  1790,  a 
hundred  years  before,  gave  a  population  of  3,929,214.  In 
a  century  the  population  had  increased  more  than  fifty- 
eight  millions. 

The  Australian  Ballot. — During  the  Harrison  adminis 
tration  an  important  change  took  place  in  the  manner  of 
voting.  More  secrecy  in  voting  wasxneeded,  and  this  was 
gained  by  the  use  of  a  system  devised  in  Australia,  and 
which  has  now  been  adopted  by  nearly  all  the  States  of 


BENJAMIN   HARRISON'S  ADMINISTRATION.  443 

this  country.  By  its  use,  any  one  who  wishes  can  make 
his  vote  absolutely  secret. 

The  Homestead  Strike. — In  1892  occurred  a  serious 
labor  trouble,  arising  from  a  great  strike  in  the  Carnegie 
Steel- Works  at  Homestead,  near  Pittsburg.  The  proprie 
tors  hired  a  force  of  detectives  to  protect  their  works. 
These  were  fired  upon  by  the  strikers  and  taken  prisoners, 
men  being  killed  on  both  sides.  The  disturbance  greAV 
so  great  that  the  whole  militia  of  Pennsylvania  had  to  be 
called  out,  and  the  works  to  be  guarded  for  several  weeks 
before  order  was  restored.  The  expense  was  great  to  the 
State,  and  still  greater  to  the  company  and  the  workmen. 

Important  Anniversaries. — During  the  period  now  under 
consideration  several  important  anniversaries  were  cele 
brated  in  this  country.  In  1881  the  centennial  anniver 
sary  of  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  was  celebrated  at  York- 
town.  In  1882  Philadelphia  celebrated  the  bicentennial  of 
the  landing  of  William  Penn,  and  in  1887  the  centennial  of 
the  Constitutional  Convention,  the  latter  with  imposing  in 
dustrial  and  military  processions.  In  1889  the  centennial 
anniversary  of  Washington's  inauguration  was  celebrated 
in  New  York  with  grand  naval  and  military  reviews  and  a 
trade  procession. 

World's  Columbian  Exposition. — But  the  most  impor 
tant  of  these  occasions  was  that  of  the  four  hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 
This  was  celebrated  by  a  naval  parade  of  all  nations  in 
New  York  harbor,  and  by  processions  and  demonstrations 
elsewhere,  but  in  particular  by  the  World's  Columbian  Ex 
position  at  Chicago,  whose  buildings  were  dedicated  with 
imposing  ceremonies,  extending  from  the  21st  to  the  23d 
of  October,  1892. 

The  Exposition,  which  was  opened  May  1,  1893,  and 


444 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   NEW   NATION. 


continued  for  six  months,  was  in  some  respects  the  most 
striking  ever  seen.  In  the  beauty  of  its  buildings  and 
grounds  it  has  never  been  equalled.  The  attendance  ex 
ceeded  twenty-seven  millions, — more  than  double  that  of 
ithe  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876. 


• 


THE  COURT  OF  HONOK. 


In  the  succeeding  winter  (1893-94)  a  "  Mid-winter  Expo 
sition"  was  held  at  San  Francisco,  and  in  1895  a  "  Cotton 
States  and  International  Exposition"  was  held  at  Atlanta, 
both  extensive  in  scope,  handsome  in  appointments,  and 
attracting  large  numbers  of  visitors. 

The  Election  of  1892. — In  the  Congressional  election  of 
1890  the  Republicans  were  severely  defeated,  their  major 
ity  of  twenty-one  in  the  House  of  Representatives  being 
changed  to  a  Democratic  majority  of  one  hundred  and 


CLEVELAND'S  SECOND  ADMINISTRATION.  445 

thirty-five.  They  met  with  a  similar  defeat  in  the  Presi 
dential  election  of  1892.  In  this  the  Republicans  renomi- 
nated  Benjamin  Harrison,  and  the  Democrats  Grover 
Cleveland.  Harrison  received  one  hundred  and  forty-five 
and  Cleveland  two  hundred  and  seventy-seven  electoral 
votes.  Whitelaw  Reid,  of  New  York,  was  the  Republican, 
and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson,  of  Illinois,  the  Democratic,  candi 
date  for  Vice-President.  There  was  a  Prohibition  candi 
date,  and  also  one  by  a  new  party,  recently  organized. 

The  People's  Party. — From  1873  onward  several  politi 
cal  organizations  of  the  farming  population  had  appeared. 
In  1889  these  were  organized  into  a  party  known  as  the 
National  Farmers1  Alliance  and  Industrial  Union.  This  in 
1892  was  absorbed  into  the  People's  party,  a  new  organi 
zation  embracing  many  of  the  labor  elements  of  the  coun 
try.  This  party,  generally  known  as  the  Populist,  nominated 
James  B.  Weaver,  of  Iowa,  and  gained  twenty-two  electoral 
votes.  It  also  elected  several  Senators  and  Representa 
tives. 

7.  Glevelanfc'0  Second  H&mini6tration. 

Democratic  Supremacy. — For  the  first  time  since  1860 
the  Democratic  party  had  now  a  majority  in  all  branches 
of  the  government,  and  were  able  to  legislate  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  the  party.  They  had  a  large  major 
ity  in  the  House  and  a  small  one  in  the  Senate.  This 
continued  until  1895,  when  another  change  in  political 
sentiment  gave  the  Republicans  a  very  large  majority  in 
the  House,  while  the  Senate  became  equally  divided  be 
tween  the  two  parties. 

The  Business  Depression  of  1893. — This  marked  change 
in  political  feeling  was  undoubtedly  due  to  a  very  severe 
business  depression,  which  began  shortly  after  the  inaugu- 


446  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

ration  of  the  President,  and  continued  with  little  alleviation 
throughout  his  term  of  office.  The  value  of  property  greatly 
decreased,  failures  became  very  numerous,  hosts  of  work 
men  were  thrown  out  of  employment,  and  the  wages  of 
others  were  reduced.  The  result  of  this  was  shown  in 
great  strikes  and  in  other  ways. 

The  Coxey  Army. — In  1894  an  Ohio  horse-dealer  named 
Coxey  started  with  an  "  army1'  of  the  unemployed  to 
Washington,  to  demand  relief  from  the  government.  The 
idea  spread,  and  other  companies  started  from  California 
and  Texas.  They  were  partly  made  up  of  workmen,  partly 
of  tramps  and  adventurers.  Coxey  reached  Washington 
with  his  "  army,"  but  the  matter  there  ended,  and  his  fol 
lowers  soon  dispersed. 

The  Pullman  Strike. — A  more  important  result  of  the 
hard  times  was  a  great  railroad  strike  in  Chicago  in  1894. 
It  began  with  a  strike  of  the  workmen  in  the  Pullman  car- 
building  shops,  and  extended  to  railroad  men,  wiio  refused 
to  take  out  trains  containing  Pullman  cars.  The  movement 
of  trains  was  greatly  interfered  with,  much  railroad  prop 
erty  was  destroyed,  and  in  the  end  the  President  sent  United 
States  troops  to  Chicago  to  maintain  order  and  protect  the 
movement  of  the  mails. 

The  Sherman  Act  Repealed. — President  Cleveland,  be 
lieving  that  the  business  depression  was  caused  by  the  large 
purchases  and  coinage  of  silver  under  the  Sherman  Act, 
called  a  special  meeting  of  Congress  in  1893,  which,  after 
long  deliberation,  passed  a  bill  prohibiting  further  purchases. 
The  bullion  accumulated  in  the  Treasury  was  still  coined, 
but  no  new  silver  was  bought. 

The  'Wilson  Tariff. — In  1894  a  new  tariff  bill  was  passed, 
known,  from  its  promoter,  as  the  Wilson  Tariff.  It  retained 
to  some  degree  the  principle  of  protection,  though  it  re- 


WESTERN  ISLANDS 
OP 

HAWAII 


from    Greenwich 


HWAII 


0  10         20          30         40         50         60 

Copyright  1902  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 

Explanation 
RAILROADS 


CLEVELAND'S   SECOND  ADMINISTRATION.  447 

duced  the  duties  on  many  articles,  while  wool,  salt,  and 
lumber  were  put  upon  the  free  list.  The  President  did  not 
sign  the  bill,  as  it  did  not  meet  his  views,  but  he  allowed  it 
to  become  law  without  his  signature. 

Civil  Service  Reform. — President  Cleveland  in  his  first 
term,  and  President  Harrison  later,  had  added  largely  to 
the  offices  filled  by  competitive  examination.  During  his 
second  term  Cleveland  added  enormously  to  the  number 
of  such  offices,  and  at  present  nearly  all  minor  positions 
under  the  government,  except  the  post-offices,  are  filled  in 
this  manner. 

Foreign  Affairs. — Several  important  questions  of  foreign 
relations  arose  during  this  administration.  The  people  of 
Hawaii  deposed  their  queen,  and  asked  for  annexation  to 
the  United  States.  This  the  President  declined,  and  the 
Hawaian  Islands  were  made  a  republic. 

A  second  matter  concerned  the  dispute  between  Vene 
zuela  .and  British  Guiana  in  relation  to  the  boundary  line. 
This  had  long  existed,  and  in  1895  President  Cleveland 
called  the  attention  of  Congress  to  it.  He  reaffirmed  the 
Monroe  Doctrine,  and  declared  that  this  country  could  not 
permit  Great  Britain  to  act  unjustly  toward  Venezuela.  A 
commission  was  appointed  to  investigate  the  subject.  In 
the  latter  part  of  1896  the  dispute  was  settled  by  Great 
Britain  consenting  to  submit  the  matter  to  arbitration.  By 
this  successful  negotiation  the  importance  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  has  been  greatly  increased. 

An  insurrection  having  broken  out  in  Cuba,  and  gaining 
great  headway,  the  President  was  called  upon  to  accord  the 
rights  of  belligerents  to  the  insurrectionists.  This  he  de 
clined  to  do,  but  indicated  that  the  time  might  soon  come 
when  it  would  be  requisite. 


448  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE  NEW   NATION. 

National  Parks  and  Forest  Reservations. — Among  the 
important  matters  of  legislation  since  the  Civil  War,  not  the 
least  important  is  the  setting  aside  of  several  regions  of 
natural  beauty  or  wonder  as  National  Parks,  such  as  the 
Yosemite  Valley,  the  Yellowstone  geyser  region,  and  the 
sequoia  groves ;  and  of  such  leading  battle-fields  as  Get 
tysburg,  Chickamauga,  etc.  In  addition  to  these,  an  act 
was  passed  in  1891  which  provided  for  a  series  of  national 
forest  reservations.  In  1897,  President  Cleveland  set  aside 
a  second  series  of  forest  reservations,  the  whole  covering 
more  than  thirty-eight  million  acres.  This  was  done  to  pre 
serve  the  forests  and  to  guard  the  sources  of  rivers  and 
streams,  which  are  seriously  injured  by  the  destruction  of 
the  mountain  woodlands. 

There  has  been  legislation  also  in  regard  to  irrigation, 
with  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  waters  which  fall  on  the 
mountains  of  the  west,  and  using  them  for  the  irrigation  of 
the  wide-spread  rainless  region.  By  this  means  it  is  hoped 
to  render  many  millions  of  arid  acres  productive. 

Admission  of  Utah. — On  January  4,  1896,  the  Territory 
of  Utah  was  proclaimed  a  State,  it  being  the  forty-fifth 
State  of  the  American  Union.  Its  constitution  gives  the  suf 
frage  to  women.  Woman  suffrage  has  existed  in  Wyoming 
since  1869  and  in  Colorado  since  1893,  and  was  voted  for 
and  adopted  in  Idaho  in  the  election  of  1896.  Partial 
woman  suffrage  exists  in  a  majority  of  the  States. 

The  New  Navy.— The  Civil  War  of  the  United  States 
proved  conclusively  that  the  era  of  wooden  vessels  in  the 
navies  of  the  world  was  at  an  end,  and  that  the  battle-ship 
of  the  future  must  be  heavily  plated  with  iron  or  steel  and 
armed  with  guns  of  great  range  and  power.  Yet  this  coun 
try  was  slow  in  applying  the  lesson  it  had  taught.  For 
twenty  years  after  the  war  almost  nothing  was  done  for  the 


CLEVELAND'S   SECOND   ADMINISTRATION. 


449 


improvement  of  the  navy.  Then  an  active  building  of  steel- 
plated  war-vessels  began,  and  to-day  the  navy  of  the  United 
States  possesses  some  of  the  swiftest  and  most  powerful 


FLEET  OF  UNITED  STATES  WAR- VESSELS  IN  HARBOR. 

cruisers  and  battle-ships  of  the  world.  Our  navy  is  still 
small  as  compared  with  those  of  the  great  maritime  nations 
of  Europe,  but  is  steadily  increasing. 

The  Election  of  1896. — In  the  Presidential  campaign  of 
1896  new  parties  and  new  views  came  into  the  contest.  The 
Republicans  nominated  William  McKinley,  whose  name  was 
associated  with  the  protective  policy,  with  the  expectation 
that  the  campaign  would  be  conducted  on  the  tariff  issue. 
For  Vice-President  they  nominated  Garret  A.  Hobart,  of 
New  Jersey. 

Their  expectation  was  not  realized.  The  Democratic 
convention  adopted  a  platform  whose  principal  demand  was 
for  "  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  at  the  present 
legal  ratio  of  sixteen  to  one," — that  is,  sixteen  ounces  of 
silver  was  to  be  considered  equal  in  value  to  one  ounce  of 
gold,  and  all  silver  offered  to  the  government  was  to  be 

29 


450  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   NEW   NATION. 

coined.  William  J.  Bryan,  of  Nebraska,  an  earnest  "  free  sil 
ver"  advocate,  received  the  nomination.  Arthur  M.  Sewall, 
of  Maine,  was  nominated  for  Vice-President. 

The  People's  party  accepted  the  Democratic  candidate 
and  policy,  though  making  a  different  nomination  for  Vice- 
President.  Many  of  the  delegates  to  the  Democratic  Con 
vention,  however,  refused  to  be  bound  by  its  action,  and 
subsequently  met  in  convention  and  nominated  candidates 
on  a  gold  standard  platform.  Nominations  were  also  made 
by  the  Prohibition  and  Socialist-Labor  parties. 

The  Campaign.  —  In  the  election  campaign  the  tariff 
question  disappeared,  and  "  free  silver"  on  the  one  side  and 
"  honest  money"  on  the  other  were  the  battle-cries  of  the 
two  parties.  Silver  had  depreciated  in  value  until  a  dollar 
in  silver  was  worth  little  more  than  a  half-dollar  in  gold. 
The  Republicans,  therefore,  held  that  the  adoption  of  the 
Democratic  policy  would  be  ruinous.  The  Democrats,  on 
the  other  hand,  maintained  that  silver,  if  freely  coined, 
would  regain  its  former  value,  and  that  the  country  was 
suffering  for  lack  of  currency. 

The  South  and  much  of  the  West  favored  the  Demo 
cratic  views  ;  the  North  and  East,  the  Republican.  There 
followed  an  unusually  active  and  exciting  campaign,  which 
ended  in  a  victory  for  the  Republicans,  McKinley  receiving 
two  hundred  and  seventy-one,  Bryan  one  hundred  and 
seventy-six  electoral  votes. 


8*  fl&clkinles's  Hfcmintetratiom 

The  Needs  of  the  Government.  —  On  the  4th  of  March, 
1897,  William  McKinley  was  formally  inaugurated  President 
of  the  United  States.  A  few  days  afterward  he  called  Con 
gress  together  in  extra  session  for  the  purpose  of  consider 
ing  the  financial  condition  of  the  country,  which  was  the 


McKINLEY'S    ADMINISTRATION.  451 

reverse  of  satisfactory.     For  several  years  the  country  had 
been  running  into  debt,  the  revenue  not  being  sufficient  to 
meet  the  annual  expenses  of  the  govern 
ment,  so  that  more  than  one  hundred 
million  dollars  had  been  added  to  the 
public  debt  of  the  United  States.    Con 
gress  was  asked  to  provide  new  sources 
of  revenue,   which  the   President  be 
lieved  could  be  best  done  by  aid  of  a 
higher  tariff  on  imported  goods.      He 
also  thought  that  this  would  aid  in  over 
coming  the  business  depression,  which        WILLIAM  MCKINLEY. 
had  continued  for  several    years.      A 
new  tariff  bill,  with  higher  rates  of  duty  than  those  of  the 
Wilson  Tariff,  was  prepared  and  passed,  becoming  law  by 
the  signature  of  the  President  in  July,  1897. 

The  Overflow  of  the  Mississippi. — Meanwhile,  a  great 
disaster  had  taken  place  in  the  West.  The  winter  had  been 
severe  and  deep  snows  covered  the  ground.  Under  the 
influence  of  heavy  spring  rains  and  warm  winds  which 
melted  these  snows,  the  rivers  of  the  West  rose  to  a  dan 
gerous  height  and  poured  their  surging  waters  into  the 
Mississippi,  until  in  April  that  great  stream  reached  a  height 
it  had  never  before  attained.  Despite  the  labors  of  thou 
sands  of  people,  the  banks  or  levees  gave  way  at  many 
points  and  thousands  of  square  miles  of  the  fertile  lands  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  were  deeply  overflowed,  while  many 
of  the  people  lost  their  lives.  Great  destitution  and  much 
suffering  prevailed,  and  it  was  not  until  late  in  the  spring 
that  the  overflowing  waters  returned  to  their  proper  chan 
nel,  leaving  wide-spread  ruin  in  the  country  around. 

Gold  in  Alaska. — In  the  summer  of  1897  it  became 
known  that  rich  deposits  of  gold  had  been  found  along  the 


452  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   NEW  NATION. 

Klondike,  a  branch  of  the  Yukon  River  of  Alaska.  The 
routes  to  that  locality  were  difficult  and  dangerous,  and 
the  winter  cold  very  severe ;  but  thousands  of  miners  and 
others  hurried  thither,  and  large  quantities  of  gold  were 
obtained.  The  Klondike  is  in  Canada,  but  gold  has  also 
been  discovered  at  Cape  Nome,  on  the  coast  of  Alaska,  and 
may  be  found  in  many  other  places. 

The  Cuban  Situation. — Meanwhile,  it  began  to  appear  as 
if  war  with  Spain  might  arise  from  the  insurrection  in  Cuba. 
The  effort  of  Spain  to  suppress  this  insurrection  was  being 
conducted  with  a  cruelty  that  shocked  the  moral  sense  of 
the  American  people  and  awakened  universal  sympathy  for 
the  suffering  Cubans.  General  Weyler,  the  governor- general 
of  the  island,  believed  that  the  rebels  were  supplied  with 
food  and  shelter  by  the  country  people,  and  devised  a  plan 
to  prevent  this.  These  poor  unfortunates,  mostly  women 
and  children  and  old  men,  were  driven  by  soldiers  into  the 
towns  and  around  the  forts ;  their  dwellings  were  burned 
and  their  crops  rooted  up  ;  they  were  threatened  with  death 
if  they  disobeyed  the  order  or  attempted  to  escape  ;  nothing 
was  left  them  but  to  starve,  for  the  people  of  the  towns  had 
little  food  to  spare  and  no  available  provision  was  made  for 
their  support. 

As  a  result  they  fell  into  the  deepest  misery,  and  multi 
tudes  of  them  starved  to  death.  More  than  two  hundred 
thousand  of  these  suffering  people  perished  of  sickness  and 
starvation  before  the  beginning  of  1898.  The  people  of  the 
United  States  sent  them  much  food,  but  the  destitution 
became  too  great  to  be  overcome  by  charity,  and  the  suffer 
ing  was  of  the  most  terrible  kind. 

American  Feeling-. — This  dreadful  state  of  affairs,  due 
to  General  Weyler's  cruelty,  was  viewed  with  deep  indig 
nation  by  the  American  people.  It  was  evident  that  the 


82° 


Longitude  West 


\  ^      -    SALT        $£. 


0  50  100 

Copyright  1902  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 

Explanation 
RAILROADS 


om  Greenwich 


ril's  Pt.<ci^ColunAus  P.t.  tA.  WATLII 


[AN  BKAO 


St.Marj-s\ 


^ 

Dame  Marie 


McKINLEY'S  ADMINISTRATION.  453 

rebellion  could  never  be  overcome  by  the  Spanish  method 
of  fighting  or  by  Weyler's  desire  of  starving  the  people,  and 
that  in  the  end  the  United  States  might  be  forced  to  inter 
fere  in  the  interest  of  humanity.  A  strong  sentiment  in 
favor  of  war  arose,  and  warlike  preparations  were  made  by 
both  the  United  States  and  Spain. 

The  Sinking  of  the  Maine. — In  January,  1898,  a  riot 
broke  out  in  the  city  of  Havana,  in  which  the  Americans 
were  thought  to  be  in  danger.  In  consequence,  the  battle 
ship  Maine  was  sent  to  Havana  harbor  as  a  measure  of 
protection.  A  dreadful  event  followed.  On  the  night  of 
February  15  a  mine  exploded  under  the  Maine  with  such 
terrible  force  that  the  great  battle-ship  was  torn  asunder 
and  sent  to  the  bottom  with  most  of  her  crew.  In  this 
frightful  moment  two  hundred  and  sixty-four  of  the  crew 
and  two  of  the  officers  were  killed  or  mortally  injured. 
When  tidings  of  this  terrible  affair  reached  the  United  States 
the  excitement  and  indignation  were  universal.  It  was  very 
generally  believed  that  the  mine  had  been  set  off  by  Spanish 
officials,  and  revenge  was  demanded  on  all  sides. 

"War  Measures. — Congress  was  as  indignant  as  the 
people,  and  preparations  for  war  were  rapidly  made.  The 
naval  court  of  inquiry,  which  fully  investigated  the  sinking 
of  the  Maine,  decided  that  the  disaster  was  due  to  an  ex 
plosion  from  the  outside,  and,  therefore,  to  a  mine  of  dyna 
mite  or  other  powerful  explosive  lying  under  the  bottom  of 
the  ship,  which  must  have  been  placed  there  by  Spanish 
hands.  The  war  spirit  now  grew  intense.  On  April  11 
President  McKinley  sent  a  message  to  Congress  asking  for 
authority  to  put  an  end  to  the  Cuban  war  by  force  of  arms, 
since  Spain  continued  her  cruel  measures.  This  authority 
was  given  by  act  of  Congress,  and  on  the  20th  a  final  mes 
sage  was  sent  to  Spain,  ordering  her  to  remove  her  land  and 


454  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   NEW  NATION. 

naval  forces  from  Cuba,  and  giving  her  until  noon  of  April 
23  for  a  reply.  Spain  at  once  sent  the  United  States  min 
ister  his  passport,  which  was  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of 
war.  The  blockade  of  Havana  and  the  adjoining  coast  of 
Cuba  by  the  American  fleet  was  immediately  ordered,  and 
on  April  25  war  was  declared,  dating  back  to  April  21. 

Incidents  of  the  Blockade. — No  time  was  lost  on  the 
part  of  the  United  States.  The  naval  squadron  at  Key 
West,  under  Admiral  William  T.  Sampson,  set  sail  for  the 
coast  of  Cuba  on  April  22,  where  it  blockaded  Havana,  the 
capital  of  the  island,  and  other  points  on  the  coast.  Several 
Spanish  merchant  ships  were  captured  and  sent  as  prizes 
to  Key  West,  and  the  batteries  at  Matanzas  were  bombarded. 
Other  bombardments  took  place,  and  on  May  11  there  was 
a  sharp  fight  with  the  batteries  at  Cardenas,  in  which  an 
officer  and  four  men  were  killed.  On  the  same  day  the 
telegraph  cables  in  the  bay  of  Cienmegos  were  cut. 

Location  of  Squadrons. — In  addition  to  the  Key  West 
squadron,  there  was  a  Flying  Squadron  in  Hampton  Roads, 
under  Commodore  Schley,  a  Northern  Patrol  Squadron, 
under  Commodore  Ho  well,  in  the  North  Atlantic,  and  a 
Pacific  Squadron,  under  Commodore  Dewey,  at  Hong  Kong, 
China.  This  last  had  the  honor  of  fighting  the  first  battle 
of  the  war.  Spain  owned  three  groups  of  islands  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean, — the  Philippine,  the  Caroline,  and  the  La- 
drone  Islands.  Of  these,  the  Philippines  were  much  the 
most  important,  their  capital,  Manila,  being  a  large  and 
prosperous  mercantile  city.  A  Spanish  fleet  lay  in  the  bay 
of  Manila,  and  this  Commodore  Dewey  was  ordered  to 
capture  or  destroy. 

The  Manila  Naval  Battle. — Dewey  sailed  from  Hong 
Kong,  and  entered  the  bay  of  Manila  in  the  night  of  April 
30.  The  Spanish  fleet  lay  in  the  little  bay  of  Cavite,  an 


McKINLEY'S   ADMINISTRATION.  455 

offshoot  from  the  great  bay,  where  it  was  defended  by  land 
batteries.  At  about  5.30  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  May  1 
it  was  attacked  by  the  American  ships,  which  for  two  hours 
poured  in  shot  and  shell  with  such  fierceness  that  the  whole 
Spanish  fleet  was  disabled.  Hardly  any  harm  was  done  to 
the  American  vessels,  and  only  a  few  men  were  wounded. 
The  fleet  then  drew  off,  and  the  men  had  their  breakfast. 
It  returned  about  noon,  and  for  an  hour  more  fired  on  the 
Spanish  ships.  At  the  end  of  that  time  they  were  all  on 
fire,  and  had  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the  shallow  bay.  Hun 
dreds  of  their  men  were  dead.  The  ships  and  the  bat 
teries  had  fired  back,  but  had  wasted  nearly  all  their  shot. 
It  was  the  most  signal  victory  in  the  history  of  the  Ameri 
can  navy. 

The  Cape  Verde  Squadron. — The  strongest  squadron 
of  Spanish  ships  lay  at  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  under  the 
command  of  Admiral  Cervera.  It  consisted  of  four  power 
ful  armored  cruisers  and  three  torpedo-boats,  and  it  was 
feared  that  it  might  cross  the  Atlantic  and  make  an  attack 
on  some  of  the  large  coast  cities  of  the  United  States. 
Hasty  preparations  were  made  to  defend  these,  and  Schley's 
and  Howell's  squadrons  were  kept  in  the  North  Atlantic 
for  this  purpose.  But  about  the  12th  of  May  word  came 
that  the  Spanish  ships  were  in  the  West  Indies,  and  had 
touched  at  the  French  island  of  Martinique  and  afterward 
at  the  Dutch  island  of  Curagao. 

Santiago  Blockaded. — It  was  thought  that  the  Spanish 
fleet  would  try  to  get  into  some  of  the  Cuban  ports,  and 
Commodore  Schley's  squadron  was  sent  in  haste  to  the 
south  of  Cuba.  Here  he  learned  that  the  Spanish  ships  had 
entered  the  bay  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  he  made  his  way 
thither  with  all  speed.  A  few  days  afterward  Admiral 
Sampson  joined  him  with  his  ships,  and  the  blockading  fleet 


456  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   NEW   NATION. 

became  very  strong.  All  the  American  battle-ships  and 
armored  cruisers  were  there. 

Hobson's  Plan. — The  first  step  taken  against  the  Spanish 
fleet  was  an  effort  to  block  it  up  in  Santiago  harbor.  The 
channel  leading  to  the  inner  bay  is  very  narrow,  and  Lieu 
tenant  Richmond  P.  Hobson,  of  the  New  York,  proposed 
to  take  in  a  large  coaling  ship,  the  Merrimac,  and  sink  it  in 
the  narrowest  part  of  the  channel.  He  knew  that  he  and 
his  men  would  run  the  greatest  danger  of  being  killed,  but 
they  were  quite  willing  to  take  the  risk. 

The  Merrimac  Sunk. — At  about  3  o'clock  in  the  morning 
of  June  3  the  Merrimac  sailed  into  the  narrow  channel.  It 
was  very  dark,  and  the  vessel  was  some  distance  in  before 
the  Spanish  discovered  it.  Then  the  batteries  and  the  ships 
began  firing  fiercely,  and  shot  rained  from  every  side  upon 
the  ship.  But  it  kept  on  until  the  desired  spot  was  reached. 
Here  the  anchor  was  dropped,  and  Hobson  tried  to  steer  his 
craft  across  the  channel ;  but  the  rudder  had  been  injured 
and  would  not  work.  He  then  exploded  the  torpedoes 
which  had  been  arranged  outside  the  vessel,  and  jumped 
overboard  with  his  men  as  it  sank  to  the  bottom.  Their 
boat  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Spanish  fire,  and  nothing 
was  left  them  but  an  old  catamaran  or  raft.  Many  Spanish 
boats  soon  appeared,  and  one  of  these,  containing  Admiral 
Cervera,  took  them  off.  Not  one  of  them  had  been  hurt. 

Result  of  the  Exploit. — The  exploit  of  the  gallant  Hobson 
and  his  men  was  highly  praised,  and  Congress  promised  to 
reward  them  by  promotion  for  their  work.  The  plan  had 
failed,  for  the  ship  lay  lengthwise  in  the  channel  and  there 
was  room  to  pass  it ;  but  their  courage  was  everywhere 
admired.  Admiral  Cervera  saw  that  the  prisoners  were 
kindly  treated,  and  they  were  exchanged  on  July  7,  after 
the  battle  of  Santiago. 


McKINLEY'S  ADMINISTRATION.  457 

The  Army  Takes  Part. — While  the  navy  was  thus  en 
gaged,  preparations  were  made  to  send  an  army  to  Santiago. 
A  call  for  125,000  and  another  for  75,000  volunteers  had 
been  made,  and  the  regular  army  was  ordered  to  be  in 
creased  to  61,000  men.  Other  regiments  were  added,  suffi 
cient  to  make  the  total  strength  of  the  army  278,500.  On 
June  14  a  force  of  over  15,000  men,  mostly  regulars,  under 
Major-Gene ral  Shatter,  sailed  from  the  camp  at  Tampa, 
Florida,  for  Santiago.  A  landing-place  had  been  captured 
by  a  force  of  marines  at  Guantanamo  Bay,  about  fifty  miles 
east  of  Santiago,  but  it  was  thought  best  to  land  the  army 
at  a  small  mining  village  called  Baiquiri,  fifteen  miles  east 
of  the  city. 

Roosevelt's  Rough  Riders. — It  was  a  poor  landing-place, 
and  the  army  was  set  in  motion  before  its  supplies  could  be 
got  on  shore.  The  road  leading  to  Santiago  was  a  mere 
mud  track  through  thick  bushes,  passing  at  places  over 
steep  hills.  In  advance  of  the  army  marched  several  troops 
of  dismounted  cavalry,  the  regulars  taking  a  lower  road  and 
the  volunteers,  popularly  known  as  "Roosevelt's  Rough 
Riders,"  following  a  road  over  the  hills.  They  were  attacked 
by  a  large  body  of  Spaniards  in  ambush,  and  a  fierce  fight 
took  place.  The  Americans  lost  a  considerable  number  in 
killed  and  wounded,  but  they  pushed  on,  drove  the  Spaniards 
from  the  bush,  killed  many  of  them,  and  won  the  victory. 

Condition  of  the  Army. — The  30th  of  June  found  the 
American  army  facing  the  Spanish  works  in  front  of  San 
tiago.  The  Spaniards  were  strongly  intrenched  on  a  hill 
known  as  San  Juan,  and  in  the  village  of  El  Caney.  The 
difficult  roads  had  prevented  the  bringing  of  guns  and  sup 
plies  to  the  front,  and  the  army  had  but  three  days'  rations 
and  only  four  batteries  of  light  artillery.  The  heat  was 
intense,  and  the  clothes  of  the  soldiers  were  so  heavy  that 


458  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

half  of  them  had  been  thrown  away.  General  Shafter  had 
been  overcome  by  the  heat  and  lay  in  his  tent  two  miles 
back.  But  in  spite  of  all  this  he  determined  to  fight,  and 
gave  orders  for  a  battle  the  next  day. 

The  Battle  of  Santiago. — Early  on  July  1  the  army  ad 
vanced.  There  was  so  little  artillery  that  infantry  charges 
had  to  be  depended  upon.  The  Rough  Riders  and  other 
regiments  charged  up  the  steep  San  Juan  hill  in  the  face  of 
a  hot  fire  and  drove  the  Spanish  from  their  works.  The 
same  was  the  case  at  El  Caney.  Here  the  battle  continued 
most  of  the  day,  charge  after  charge  being  made.  In  the 
end  the  Spaniards  were  driven  back  with  great  loss.  On 
the  next  day  .the  Spaniards  made  a  desperate  effort  to 
regain  their  lost  works.  It  was  in  vain,  the  Americans  held 
every  foot  of  ground  they  had  won,  and  the  Spanish  army 
was  driven  to  its  inner  line  of  defences.  The  American 
loss  was  over  fifteen  hundred  in  killed  and  wounded ;  that 
of  the  Spaniards  was  much  greater. 

Pate  of  the  Spanish  Fleet.— On  July  3  the  Spanish  fleet 
made  a  desperate  effort  to  escape.  Passing  the  sunken 
Merrimac,  the  four  cruisers  dashed  at  full  speed  out  of  the 
harbor,  firing  as  they  fled.  Behind  them  came  two  torpedo- 
boats.  Admiral  Sampson  being  temporarily  absent,  Com 
modore  Schley  was  in  control  of  the  fleet.  One  of  its  leading 
ships  was  the  battle-ship  Oregon,  which  had  joined  the  fleet 
after  a  thirteen  thousand  mile  journey  from  San  Francisco 
around  Cape  Horn.  The  American  fire  was  so  fierce  and 
sure  that  one  after  another  of  the  Spanish  ships  was  set  on 
fire  and  driven  ashore.  The  two  torpedo-boats  were  sunk 
by  an  armed  yacht,  the  Gloucester.  The  Cristobal  Colon 
ran  about  fifty  miles  along  the  coast,  but  was  chased  so 
sharply  by  the  Brooklyn  and  the  Oregon  that  she,  too,  was 
driven  ashore,  and  the  victory  made  complete.  Most  of  the 


McKINLEY'S  ADMINISTRATION.  459 

Spanish  sailors  had  been  killed,  and  the  remainder  were 
taken  prisoners.  Of  the  Americans,  only  one  man  was  killed. 
It  was  a  victory  equal  to  that  in  the  harbor  of  Manila. 

Surrender  of  the  Spanish  Army. — The  Spanish  were 
strongly  intrenched  in  Santiago,  but  food  was  scarce  and 
they  were  surrounded,  while  their  fleet  was  lost.  A  demand 
for  their  surrender  was  made  by  General  Shafter.  After 
a  week  or  two  of  debate  it  was  acceded  to,  and  all  the 
Spanish  soldiers  in  the  eastern  end  of  Cuba  were  sur 
rendered  as  prisoners  of  war,  the  American  government 
agreeing  to  send  them  back  to  Spain. 

Financial  Measures. — While  the  war  was  going  on  the 
government  at  Washington  was  taking  active  steps  for  its 
support.  Before  the  war  began  Congress  had  voted  fifty 
million  dollars  for  defence.  Two  hundred  million  dollars 
were  afterward  borrowed  from  the  people  at  an  interest 
rate  of  three  per  cent.  To  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war  an 
internal  tax  was  laid  on  the  country.  Documents  of  nearly 
all  kinds  had  to  be  stamped,  and  various  other  things  were 
taxed. 

Hawaii  Annexed. — In  July  a  final  vote  was  taken  in 
Congress  on  the  question  of  annexing  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  bill  passed  the  Senate  on  July 
6,  and  was  signed  by  the  President  on  July  7.  This  act  of 
Congress  added  a  large  and  fertile  group  of  islands  to  the 
United  States.  It  was  the  first  addition  to  this  country  at 
a  distance  from  the  continent. 

Porto  Rico  Invaded. — Shortly  after  the  surrender  of  the 
Spaniards  at  Santiago,  Major-General  Miles  took  a  large 
army  to  the  island  of  Porto  Rico.  Little  opposition  was 
made  by  the  Spanish  soldiers,  and  soon  a  large  section  of 
that  fertile  island  was  in  American  hands.  The  people 
there  gave  a  glad  welcome  to  the  American  soldiers,  and 


460  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  NATION. 

loudly  cheered  the  American  flag.  They  were  eager  to  es 
cape  from  the  rule  of  Spain. 

The  Capture  of  Manila. — After  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish 
fleet  at  Manila,  a  large  force  of  soldiers,  under  General 
Merritt,  and  several  powerful  war-ships  were  sent  to  rein 
force  Admiral  Dewey.  On  July  31  an  unsuccessful  effort 
was  made  by  the  Spanish  garrison  of  Manila,  during  a  vio 
lent  storm,  to  surprise  the  American  camp ;  and  on  August 
13  the  city  was  taken  by  a  combined  assault  of  the  Ameri 
can  army  and  fleet.  The  natives  of  the  island  had,  during 
this  period,  kept  up  a  close  investment  and  siege  of  the 
city.  After  its  capture  they  became  hostile  to  the  Ameri 
cans,  and  a  severe  conflict  with  them  began  in  February, 
1899,  which  continued  for  several  months. 

A  Treaty  of  Peace. — Meanwhile,  Spain,  in  despair  of 
success,  asked  for  terms  of  peace,  and  a  protocol,  or  pre 
liminary  treaty,  was  drawn  up  and  signed  on  August  12, 
and  hostilities  came  to  an  end.  Soon  after,  peace  commis 
sioners  were  appointed  by  the  United  States  and  Spain, 
and  met  at  Paris,  where  they  concluded  a  formal  treaty  of 
peace  on  December  10.  This  treaty  was  ratified  by  the 
United  States  Senate  on  February  6,  1899,  was  signed  by 
the  Queen  Regent  of  Spain  on  March  17,  and  was  received 
in  Washington  on  April  11,  and  the  ratified  treaties  were 
exchanged.  Immediately  the  President  issued  a  proclama 
tion  that  peace  was  restored,  and  appointed  a  United  States 
minister  to  Spain. 

Terms  of  the  Treaty. — By  the  treaty  Spain  granted  the 
independence  of  Cuba  and  ceded  to  the  United  States  the 
islands  of  Porto  Rico  and  Guam  and  the  Philippine  Archi 
pelago.  For  the  latter  the  United  States  agreed  to  pay 
Spain  $20,000,000,  as  an  indemnity  for  the  public  buildings 
and  other  improvements  in  the  islands. 


McKINLEY'S   ADMINISTRATION.  461 

Philippine  Affairs. — The  treaty  with  Spain  was  finally 
consummated  on  July  3,  1899,  on  which  day  it  was  ratified 
by  the  Spanish  Senate.  Meanwhile,  the  $20,000,000  paid 
by  the  United  States  had  not  secured  for  that  country  the 
Philippine  Islands.  Under  a  daring  and  able  leader,  Emilio 
Aguinaldo,  the  people  of  the  island  of  Luzon  broke  out  in 
insurrection  and  began  a  war  for  independence,  and  on  the 
night  of  February  4,  1899,  an  assault  in  force  was  made  on 
the  American  outposts  at  Manila.  It  ended  in  the  repulse 
of  the  assailants,  who  were  driven  back  from  the  vicinity 
of  the  city. 

Advance  of  the  Army. — The  advance  of  the  American 
forces  against  the  Filipinos  began  on  March  25.  It  met 
with  considerable  resistance,  but  Malolos,  Aguinaldo's  capi 
tal,  was  occupied  on  the  31st,  and  in  the  succeeding  months 
a  number  of  Filipino  strongholds  were  taken.  In  July  the 
coming  on  of  the  rainy  season  put  an  end  to  active  opera 
tions,  but  they  were  resumed  in  the  autumn  with  great 
success,  the  natives  no  longer  strongly  maintaining  their 
positions  against  the  American  troops. 

Efforts  for  Peace. — Efforts  were  made  in  vain  for  a 
peaceful  solution  of  the  difficulty.  A  Philippine  Commis 
sion  visited  the  islands,  and  offered  the  natives  a  system  of 
government  under  which  they  would  have  enjoyed  a  large 
measure  of  liberty,  but  Aguinaldo  refused  to  accept  any 
thing  less  than  complete  independence. 

Dewey  Honored. — Meanwhile,  the  distinguished  services 
of  Commodore  Dewey  had  been  rewarded ;  at  first  by  his 
promotion  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  afterwards,  on  March 
3,  1899,  to  that  of  admiral, — the  highest  rank  in  the  Ameri 
can  navy,  and  one  which  only  Farragut  and  Porter  had 
previously  enjoyed.  \ 

Outcome  of  the  "War. — During  1900  the  conflict  in  the 


462  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   NEW   NATION. 

Philippines  degenerated  into  a  guerilla  warfare,  of  very  an 
noying  character,  which  continued  into  1901.  A  new  com 
mission,  with  enhanced  powers,  visited  the  islands  in  the 
latter  part  of  1900  and  arranged  a  system  of  civil  govern 
ment  which  many  of  the  natives  accepted,  and  which 
promised  to  bring  peace  and  prosperity  to  the  islands. 

The  Troubles  in  China. — While  these  events  were  pro 
ceeding  in  the  Philippines  a  serious  outbreak  took  place  in 
the  neighboring  empire  of  China,  a  warlike  society  known 
as  "  Boxers11  attacking  the  missionaries,  and  finally  entering 
Peking  and  besieging  the  foreign  ministers  in  their  legations. 
The  German  minister  was  killed,  and  the  others  were  saved 
from  death  only  by  an  advance  on  the  capital  of  a  strong 
force  of  allied  troops,  including  a  detachment  of  American 
soldiers.  Peking  was  captured  in  August,  1900,  the  min 
isters  were  rescued,  and  negotiations  with  the  Chinese 
authorities  began,  ending  in  the  exaction  of  very  severe 
terms  of  retribution  for  the  unparalleled  outrage. 

Re-election  of  President  McKinley. — In  the  Presidential 
campaign  of  1 900  William  McKinley  and  William  J.  Bryan, 
the  candidates  of  1896,  were  renominated,  the  respective 
candidates  for  the  Vice-Presidency  being  Theodore  Roose 
velt,  Governor  of  New  York,  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson,  late 
Vice-President.  The  election  resulted  in  the  return  of  the 
Republican  candidates  by  a  greater  majority  than  in  1896, 
McKinley  receiving  two  hundred  and  ninety-two  electoral 
votes,  Bryan  one  hundred  and  fifty-five.  A  bill  had  been 
passed  by  Congress,  March  6,  1900,  making  the  gold  dollar 
the  standard  of  value  in  American  money,  and  the  demand 
for  the  free  coinage  of  silver  was  now  supplanted  by  the 
questions  of  the  trusts  or  business  combinations  and  Amer 
ican  control  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  second  inaugu 
ration  of  President  McKinley  took  place  on  March  4,  1901. 


McKINLEY'S   ADMINISTRATION.  463 

Pan- American  Exposition. — Of  the  events  of  1901,  one 
of  the  most  notable  was  an  exposition  held  at  Buffalo,  New 
York,  for  the  purpose  of  displaying  the  products  of  the 
American  republics.  It  was  on  a  much  smaller  scale  than 
the  World's  Fairs  of  1876  and  1893,  but  formed  a  beautiful 
and  artistic  exhibition,  its  vari-colored  buildings  being  very 
attractive  and  its  electrical  display  far  surpassing  anything 
of  the  kind  ever  before  seen.  On  December  1,  1901,  an 
attractive  "  South  Carolina,  Interstate,  and  West  Indian 
Exposition"  was  opened  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 

Census  of  19OO. — An  important  event  of  the  year  1900 
was  the  taking  of  the  twelfth  census  of  the  United  States. 
This  gave  a  total  population  of  76,303,387,  being  an  in 
crease  of  more  than  13,000,000  since  1890.  Of  this  popu 
lation,  the  foreign  born  numbered  10,460,085 ;  the  colored, 
8,840,789;  the  Indian,  266,861 ;  the  Chinese,  119,050;  and 
the  Japanese,  85,986.  Many  of  these  Chinese  and  the  bulk 
of  the  Japanese  were  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  which  had 
been  made  a  Territory  of  the  United  States  on  April  30, 
1900.  The  census  showed  one  city,  New  York,  of  over 
three  millions  population ;  two,  Chicago  and  Philadelphia, 
of  considerably  over  one  million  each ;  three,  St.  Louis, 
Boston,  and  Baltimore,  of  over  half  a  million  each ;  thirty- 
two  between  one  hundred  thousand  and  half  a  million,  and 
a  total  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  cities  of  over  twenty- 
five  thousand  population.  The  number  of  cities  of  over 
one  hundred  thousand  population  had  nearly  doubled  in 
twenty  years. 

Capture  of  Agninaldo. — In  March,  1901,  an  important 
event  occurred  in  the  Philippine  Islands  in  the  capture  of 
Aguinaldo,  the  leader  of  the  insurrection.  This  was  accom 
plished  through  strategy  by  General  Frederick  Funston,  a 
soldier  who  had  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  Philip- 


464  DEVELOPMENT  OF   THE   NEW   NATION. 

pine  war.  As  a  result  many  of  the  leaders  surrendered, 
and  the  conflict  soon  came  to  an  end.  On  July  1,  1902, 
civil  government  in  the  Philippines  was  established,  William 
H.  Taft  being  made  Governor,  and  most  of  the  official  posi 
tions  filled  by  natives  of  the  islands.  Schools  were  opened, 
trade  developed,  and  satisfaction  with  American  rule  grew 
general.  A  Pacific  telegraph  cable  from  San  Francisco  to 
Manila  was  laid,  the  first  message  being  sent  July  4,  1903. 

Affairs  in  Porto  Rico. — The  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain 
had  made  Porto  Rico  a  dependency  of  the  United  States. 
Shortly  afterwards  a  hurricane  swept  the  island,  doing  im 
mense  damage  and  causing  great  suffering  among  the  people. 
They  suffered  also  from  tariff  discrimination.  A  bill  was 
therefore  passed  reducing  the  tariff,  under  which  business 
was  resumed.  Subsequently  free  trade  with  the  United 
States  was  instituted,  and  business  became  prosperous  and 
the  people  contented. 

The  Saxnoan  Treaty.— By  a  treaty  concluded  in  Decem 
ber,  1899,  the  Samoan  islands  were  divided  between  Ger 
many  and  the  United  States,  the  latter  country  gaining  the 
island  of  Tutuila  and  some  smaller  islands.  The  value  of 
the  acquisition  lay  in  the  harbor  of  Pago  Pago,  probably 
the  finest  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Assassination  of  President  McKinley. — The  second 
term  of  President  McKinley  was  brought  to  a  sudden  and 
disastrous  termination.  On  the  6th  of  September,  1901, 
during  a  visit  to  the  Pan-American  Exposition,  he  was  shot 
by  an  anarchist  while  receiving  the  people.  The  assassin, 
Leon  Czolgosz  by  name,  held  a  pistol  in  his  hand  concealed 
by  a  handkerchief,  and,  as  the  President  was  about  to  shake 
hands  with  him,  discharged  the  weapon  twice.  The  exalted 
victim  survived  for  more  than  a  week,  and  strong  hopes  of 
his  recovery  were  entertained,  but  his  hurt  proved  fatal,  and 


ROOSEVELT'S   ADMINISTRATION.  465 

he  died  in  the  early  morning  of  September  14.  He  was  the 
third  President  of  the  United  States  to  die  by  the  hand  of 
an  assassin. 

The  McKinley  Obsequies. — The  murder  of  President 
McKinley  excited  universal  grief  and  called  forth  the  sym 
pathy  of  the  crowned  heads  of  the  nations.  The  days  that 
followed  his  death  were  days  of  mourning  throughout  the 
country.  His  funeral  train  passed  from  Buffalo  to  Wash 
ington,  and  thence  to  Canton,  Ohio,  the  President's  place 
of  residence,  the  whole  route  being  lined  with  throngs  of 
sorrowing  citizens.  The  final  ceremonies  took  place  on 
Thursday,  September  19,  when  the  honored  remains  were 
committed  to  the  tomb  at  the  close  of  solemn  and  impres 
sive  services.  On  October  29  the  assassin  paid  the  legal 
penalty  of  his  crime,  being  executed  in  the  electric  chair. 

9.  IRoosevelt's  EDmtntetration. 

Accession  of  President  Roosevelt. — On  the  day  of  the 
President's  death  Theodore  Roosevelt,  the  Vice-President, 
took  the  oath  of  office  at  Buffalo,  and 
was    installed    as    the    twenty-sixth 
President  of  the  United  States.     Born 
in  New  York  City  in  1858,  he  was  in 
his  forty-third  year,  being  the  youngest 
man  to  be  made  Chief  Executive  of 
the  nation.    His  upward  progress  had 
been  remarkably  rapid.    In  1897,  after 
a  period  of  membership  in  the  New 
York  legislature  and  of  official  service 
in  New  York  City,  he  was  appointed       THEODOBE  ROOSEVELT 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and 
in  1898  became  a  popular  favorite  for  his  gallantry  as 
leader  of  the  "Rough  Riders"  in  the  Santiago  campaign. 

30 


466  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   NEW   NATION. 

Late  in  the  same  year  he  was  elected  Governor  of  New 
York,  and  in  1900  reluctantly  accepted  the  nomination  for 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  Within  less  than  a 
year  after  his  election  the  crime  of  an  assassin  made  him 
President  of  the  great  republic  of  the  West. 

Roosevelt's  Policy. — Roosevelt  entered  office  free  from 
obligations  to  politicians  or  party  leaders.  On  taking  the 
oath  of  office  he  stated  that  he  would  maintain  the  policy 
of  President  McKinley,  and  this  he  soon  showed  his  pur 
pose  of  doing.  He  had  been  a  member  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  and  began  his  career  with  a  rigid  adherence  to 
its  principles,  refusing  to  appoint  any  man  to  office  on  any 
standard  but  that  of  merit.  His  first  message  to  Congress, 
in  December,  1901,  was  a  very  able  state  paper,  and  showed 
that  the  new  President  thoroughly  grasped  the  situation, 
and  would  administer  with  moderation  but  firmness  the 
duties  of  his  great  office. 

The  Cuban  Republic. — In  1900  a  convention  assembled 
to  form  a  Constitution  for  the  island  of  Cuba,  and  adopted 
one  similar  to  that  of  the  United  States.  Naval  stations  in 
the  island  were  granted  to  this  country,  and  the  powers  of 
the  Cuban  government  were  limited  in  some  other  particu 
lars.  On  May  20,  1902,  the  flag  of  the  United  States  was 
lowered  and  the  troops  were  withdrawn,  the  Republic  of 
Cuba  coming  into  legal  existence  on  that  day.  A  treaty  of 
commerce  was  subsequently  made,  and  finally  ratified  in 
December,  1903,  by  which  the  United  States  tariff  rates 
were  reduced  twenty  per  cent,  on  Cuban  products,  and 
Cuban  rates  from  twenty  to  forty  per  cent,  on  all  American 
products  except  tobacco. 

The  Isthmian  Canal. — The  project  of  making  an  Ameri 
can  ship-canal  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  was  taken 
up  by  the  United  States  in  1901,  after  a  French  company 


ROOSEVELT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  467 

had  long  sought  in  vain  to  construct  such  a  canal  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  route  selected  by  the  United  States 
was  that  across  Nicaragua,  utilizing  the  channels  of  San  Juan 
River  and  Lake  Nicaragua,  but  early  in  1902  the  French 
canal  company  offered  their  partly  completed  work  to  the 
United  States  for  $40,000,000.  Congress  decided  to  accept 
this  offer,  provided  satisfactory  control  of  the  canal  route 
could  be  obtained  from  the  republic  of  Colombia,  and  a  treaty 
was  negotiated  with  that  country.  This  was  ratified  by  the 
United  States  Senate  on  March  17,  1903,  but  when  brought 
before  the  Senate  of  Colombia  was  rejected  by  that  body. 

The  Treaty  with  Panama.— On  November  3,  1903,  the 
people  of  Panama,  angry  at  the  rejection  of  the  treaty, 
seceded  from  Colombia  and  proclaimed  their  independence. 
On  the  6th  the  new  republic  was  recognized  by  the  United 
States,  and  soon  afterward  a  canal  treaty,  of  very  favorable 
character,  was  made  with  Panama.  So,  in  the  beginning 
of  1904,  the  way  was  at  length  open  to  begin  work  on  the 
canal. 

The  Anthracite  Coal  Strike. — An  industrial  conflict  of 
the  highest  importance  took  place  in  1902,  in  a  strike  of 
the  entire  body  of  anthracite  coal  miners  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  strike  continued  for  five  months,  from  May  to  October, 
by  which  time  millions  of  people  were  destitute  of  coal, 
winter  was  at  hand,  and  the  dread  of  suffering  from  cold 
had  grown  intense.  No  other  strike  in  modern  history  had 
affected  so  many  people.  A  settlement  was  finally  effected 
through  the  influence  of  President  Roosevelt,  a  committee 
of  arbitration  being  appointed  to  adjust  the  questions  in 
dispute.  On  October  23  the  miners  returned  to  work  and 
the  trouble  came  to  an  end. 

Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. — A  new  depart 
ment  was  added  to  the  Executive  branch  of  the  government 


468  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   NEW   NATION. 

by  Act  of  Congress  in  February,  1903,  to  be  entitled  the 
Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  and  to  have  under 
its  supervision  the  commercial  and  industrial  interests  of 
the  United  States.  George  B.  Cortelyou,  who  had  been 
private  secretary  to  Presidents  McKinley  and  Roosevelt,  was 
appointed  the  first  Secretary  of  the  new  department  and 
became  the  ninth  member  of  the  Cabinet. 

Alaska  Boundary  Arbitration. — The  opening  of  the 
Klondike  gold-mines  in  1897  made  it  important  to  settle 
the  long-pending  boundary  question  between  Canada  and 
Alaska.  The  question  was  submitted  to  arbitration  in  1903, 
three  commissioners  being  appointed  on  each  side.  The 
decision,  rendered  October  20,  1903,  favored  the  American 
claim,  the  line  fixed  on  following  the  mountain  crests  ten 
leagues  back  from  the  water,  instead  of  crossing  the  head 
of  the  inlets,  as  the  Canadians  desired,  that  they  might  reach 
the  sea  without  crossing  United  States  territory. 

St.  Louis  Exposition. — A  great  World's  Fair,  in  com 
memoration  of  the  centennial  anniversary  of  the  purchase 
of  Louisiana  in  1803,  was  opened  at  St.  Louis  in  the  .spring 
of  1904,  the  buildings  having  been  dedicated,  with  appro 
priate  ceremonies,  on  April  30,  1903.  It  was  proposed  to 
make  this — officially  named  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Expo 
sition — the  greatest  the  world  had  ever  seen,  an  area  of 
1180  acres  being  provided  and  twelve  immense  exhibition 
buildings  constructed,  while  many  others  of  striking  archi 
tecture  were  erected  by  the  American  States  and  by  foreign 
countries.  The  grouping  of  the  buildings  and  the  arrange 
ment  of  the  grounds  were  all  in  the  highest  style  of  land 
scape  art,  and  the  displays  within  the  buildings  were  of  the 
most  varied,  artistic,  and  striking  character.  The  electrical 
display  surpassed  anything  of  the  kind  ever  before  seen, 
this  being  made  the  great  feature  of  the  exposition. 


PART    XI. 
STAGES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


i.  GOVERNMENTAL  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  COLONIES. 

Purposes  of  Spanish  and  French  Colonists. — It  was  per 
haps  a  fortunate  result  of  the  conditions  of  nature  that  the 
region  of  the  United  States  did  not  prove  attractive  to  the 
early  settlers  of  either  France  or  Spain.  A  century  after 
the  discovery  of  America  there  were  only  two  Spanish  set 
tlements  in  this  region,  St.  Augustine  and  Santa  Fe.  There 
were  no  French  settlements. 

This  fact  is  not  difficult  to  understand.  It  was  the  search 
for  gold  to  which  the  Spanish  activity  in  colonization  was 
due.  Agriculture  was  long  a  minor  consideration.  But 
the  explorations  of  De  Soto  and  Coronado  had  failed  to  find 
gold  or  other  precious  products  in  the  north.  Hence  the 
Spanish  settlers  neglected  this  section  of  America. 

The  French,  like  the  Spanish,  were  not  strongly  inclined 
to  agriculture.  After  their  failure  to  found  a  colony  in 
Florida  they  confined  their  settlements  to  the  region  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  attracted  by  the  fur-trade  and  the  fisheries, 
which  promised  to  be  more  lucrative  than  the  cultivation 
of  the  ground. 

Region  of  British  Occupation. — For  the  reasons  here 
given  the  Atlantic  coast  between  Florida  and  Acadia  re 
mained  unoccupied  until  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 

469 


470     STAGES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

century,  when  the  English  awakened  to  the  advantage  of 
colonization.  The  English  colonies  differed  essentially  in 
character  from  those  of  Spain  and  France.  Those  of  Spain 
began  as  royal  colonies,  and  remained  so.  Those  of  France, 
though  formed  by  proprietors,  quickly  became  royal  col 
onies.  In  none  of  these  was  there  any  civil  or  religious 
liberty.  The  colonists  were  subjects  of  autocratic  govern 
ments  at  home,  and  looked  for  nothing  better  abroad. 

Political  Conditions  of  the  English  Colonies. — The 
colonies  of  England  were  formed  by  the  people,  not  by  the 
crown.  Though  most  of  them  eventually  became  royal 
colonies,  they  had  a  long  period  of  self-government,  during 
which  they  were  left  almost  without  interference  from  the 
mother-country.  The  colonists  also  differed  greatly  from 
those  of  France  and  Spain  in  degree  of  political  education. 
They  had  exercised  the  right  of  suffrage  and  possessed 
representative  government  at  home,  and  lost  no  time  in 
establishing  a  similar  form  of  government  in  America. 
There  were  exceptions  to  this.  In  some  colonies  an  effort 
was  made  to  establish  a  paternal  or  autocratic  government. 
But  this  quickly  failed  and  representative  government  be 
came  general. 

Paternal  Government. — Paternalism,  similar  to  that  pre 
vailing  in  Canada  and  Spanish  America,  was  attempted  in 
Virginia,  New  York,  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  That  in  Vir 
ginia  soon  ended.  In  Carolina  and  Georgia  the  vigorous 
opposition  of  the  people  to  paternalism  in  time  brought  it 
to  an  end.  In  New  Amsterdam,  paternalism  prevailed 
throughout,  and  continued  in  the  English  colony  of  New 
York  until  1683,  when  the  Duke  of  York,  at  the  sugges 
tion  of  William  Penn,  ordered  the  election  of  a  representa 
tive  assembly.  In  all  these  cases  representative  succeeded 
paternal  government. 


GOVERNMENTAL  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  COLONIES.     471 

Representative  Government. — In  Pennsylvania,  Mary 
land,  and  New  Jersey  representative  government  was  at 
once  established  by  the  proprietors,  and  in  the  New  Eng 
land  colonies  by  the  people  themselves.  Its  development, 
and  the  growing  liberty  of  the  people,  were  greatly  aided 
by  the  revolutionary  movements  in  England,  where  two 
kings  had  been  driven  from  the  throne  for  tyranny.  This 
struggle  for  free  institutions  in  the  mother-country  was 
reflected  in  the  colonies,  where  the  spirit  of  liberty  grew 
steadily  stronger.  And  the  ruling  powers  in  England  were 
for  many  years  so  occupied  at  home  that  they  interfered 
but  little  with  what  was  taking  place  abroad. 

The  Plymouth  Compact. — One  colony  came  to  America 
without  charter  or  proprietor,  and  without  lord  or  master. 
This  was  the  Plymouth  colony,  which  was  left  free  to 
devise  what  form  of  government  it  pleased.  In  accordance 
with  English  example,  a  self-governed  democracy  was  es 
tablished.  A  compact  was  drawn  up  and  signed  in  the 
cabin  of  the  Mayflower  in  which  the  Pilgrims  declared 
their  purpose  of  making  laws  for  the  "  general  good  of  the 
colony.1'  A  governor  was  chosen  from  among  themselves, 
and  in  this  way  New  England  began  its  existence  as  a  free 
commonwealth,  in  whose  government  England  had  no 
part. 

The  government  established  was  of  the  most  primitive 
form.  It  was  not  a  representative  government,  but  one 
composed  of  the  whole  people,  every  freeman  taking  part 
directly  in  the  making  of  the  laws.  It  was  their  custom  to 
meet  in  an  assembly  of  the  community,  and  enact  laws, 
which  were  enforced  by  the  governor  and  his  council. 
This  was  an  interesting  instance  of  government  of  the 
people  by  the  people.  It  still  exists  in  New  England  and. 
some  other  parts  of  the  United  States  as  the  "  town  meet- 


472     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ing,1'  in  which  the  people  of  small  localities  meet  to  make 
laws  for  their  local  government. 

The  Massachusetts  and  Maryland  Systems. — The 
colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  began  its  existence  with  the 
same  simple  form  of  government  as  that  of  Plymouth.  It 
was,  however,  not  free  to  all,  since  only  members  of  the 
Puritan  Church  could  take  part  in  legislation.  No  others 
could  vote  or  act  in  the  assembly. 

Maryland,  when  first  settled,  was  given  a  similar  simple 
form  of  government  by  Lord  Baltimore.  It  was  broader  in 
its  idea  of  liberty  than  that  of  Massachusetts,  since  it  made 
no  sectarian  restriction.  All  Christians  were  given  a  voice 
in  the  law-making  body. 

A  Representative  Assembly  Chosen. — This  simple 
system  soon  proved  inapplicable  except  for  local  affairs. 
By  1634  there  were  many  settlements,  miles  apart,  around 
Massachusetts  Bay.  It  became  next  to  impossible  for  the 
whole  people  to  meet  and  make  laws.  In  that  year,  there 
fore,  deputies  or  representatives  were  elected  to  act  for  the 
people  in  a  "  General  Court" l  or  legislature,  which  at  first 
served  both  as  a  court  of  law  and  a  legislative  body.  In 
this  way  personal  government  was  widened  into  repre 
sentative  government.  The  legislature  in  Massachusetts 
and  New  Hampshire  is  still  called  the  General  Court. 

The  Two-House  Legislative  System. — Massachusetts 
took  a  second  step  of  progress  in  1644.  Until  then  the 
legislature  had  formed  one  body.  It  was  now  divided  into 
two,  on  the  plan  of  the  Houses  of  Lords  and  Commons  in 
England.  The  governor  and  his  councillors  sat  in  one 

1  A  "  General  Court"  was  prescribed  in  the  charter,  and  the  first  was 
held  in  Boston,  October  19,  1630.  This  was  an  assembly  of  the  whole 
people,  not  a  representative  body.  The  charter  required  all  freemen 
to  assemble  four  times  a  year. 


GOVERNMENTAL  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  COLONIES.     473 

chamber,  the  representatives  in  another.  The  governor 
and  council  were  elected  annually  by  the  whole  body  of 
freemen ;  the  representatives  by  the  several  settlements. 
Thus  was  first  constituted  the  American  legislature  of  two 
houses,  now  the  prevailing  form. 

This  system  of  two  legislative  houses  was  adopted  in 
time  by  all  the  colonies  but  Pennsylvania,  though  outside 
of  New  England  the  upper  house  was  not  elected  by  the 
people,  but  chosen  by  the  governor  or  proprietor.  It  did 
not,  therefore,  represent  the  people.  Pennsylvania  pos 
sessed  a  single  legislative  assembly  elected  by  the  people. 
An  executive  council  to  assist  the  governor  was  also  elected, 
but  it  had  no  law-making  functions. 

Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island. — In  the  New  Haven 
settlement,  as  in  the  Massachusetts,  only  church  members 
could  vote.  The  Connecticut  settlement  was  more  liberal 
and  gave  all  citizens  the  right  to  vote.  No  official  but  the 
governor  was  required  to  be  a  church  member.  In  Con 
necticut,  as  in  Massachusetts,  the  governor  and  legislature 
took  oaths  of  allegiance  to  the  commonwealth,  not  to  the 
crown.  Connecticut  drew  up  a  written  constitution,  in 
which  no  mention  was  made  of  the  king.  It  was  the  FIRST 
WRITTEN  CONSTITUTION  ever  framed  by  a  body  of  citizens  for 
their  own  government. 

Rhode  Island  went  farther  in  the  development  of  politi 
cal  liberty  than  any  other  American  colony.  There  every 
citizen,  whether  Christian  or  pagan,  had  the  right  of  suffrage 
and  of  official  position.  Every  man  who  was  the  head  of  a 
family  was  a  member  of  the  General  Court  of  the  colony. 
Rhode  Island  was  thus  a  pure  democracy,  there  being  no 
religious  restriction  to  political  privilege.  As  the  colony 
widened  a  representative  government  like  that  of  Massa 
chusetts  was  adopted. 


474     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

United  Colonies  of  New  England. — New  England, 
whose  progress  in  political  evolution  surpassed  that  of  the 
southern  communities,  took  another  important  step  forward 
in  1643.  A  confederacy,  or  federal  government,  was  estab 
lished.  The  colonies  of  Plymouth,  Massachusetts  Bay, 
Connecticut,  and  New  Haven  joined  into  a  federation  en 
titled  The  United  Colonies  of  New  England.  Rhode  Island 
was  refused  admission,  its  separate  existence  as  a  colony 
not  being  yet  acknowledged. 

Two  deputies  were  sent  annually  from  each  colony  to 
form  an  assembly,  whose  purpose  was  to  provide  for  de 
fence  against  the  Dutch  and  Indians  and  to  settle  disputes 
between  the  colonies.  No  permission  was  asked  from  the 
king  to  form  this  assembly,  but  no  objection  was  made 
to  it. 

It  will  be  seen  that  New  England  had  made  a  remarkable 
advance  toward  a  federal  republic  of  the  same  type  as  that 
of  the  United  States  of  America. 

Royal  Colonies. — Gradually  the  crown  encroached  upon 
the  rights  of  companies  and  proprietors.  Virginia  was 
made  a  royal  colony  in  a  few  years  after  its  settlement.  A 
similar  result  came  later  to  New  York,  New  Jersey,  the 
Carolinas,  and  Georgia.  Maryland  was  a  crown  colony 
from  1691  to  1715,  when  it  was  restored  to  its  proprietor. 
Pennsylvania  was  the  only  colony  which  remained  (except 
in  1692-93)  under  proprietary  government  throughout. 

In  New  England,  New  Hampshire  was  made  a  royal 
colony.  The  chartered  colonies,  Massachusetts,  Connecti 
cut,  and  Rhode  Island,  were  under  royal  government  for  a 
few  years  during  the  reign  of  James  II.  During  the  remain 
ing  period  of  its  colonial  existence  Massachusetts,  though 
retaining  its  charter,  was  under  a  royal  governor.  He  was, 
however,  in  a  large  measure  a  servant  of  the  people,  since 


GOVERNMENTAL  CONDITIONS  IN  THE   COLONIES.     475 

his  salary  was  annually  voted  by  the  legislature,  and  could 
be  decreased  if  he  acted  in  defiance  of  the  popular  will. 
Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  on  the  contrary,  were  per 
mitted  to  retain  their  previous  republican  forms  of  govern 
ment,  and  continued  politically  independent,  electing  their 
own  governors  and  all  other  officials.  Connecticut  main 
tained  its  charter  government  until  1818,  and  Rhode  Island 
until  1842.  These  charters  were  so  liberal  in  their  pro 
visions  that  they  served  for  many  years  as  constitutions  of 
independent  States. 

Religious  Restrictions. — The  degree  of  religious  liberty 
enjoyed  by  the  colonists  differed  considerably.  Of  them 
all,  Virginia  was  the  only  one  in  which  the  principle  of 
Church  and  State  existed  throughout.  The  Church  of 
England  was  established  on  the  formation  of  the  colony, 
and  its  ministers  and  adherents  continued  very  intolerant. 

Many  of  the  other  colonies  were  formed  by  immigrants 
who  left  their  homes  to  escape  from  religious  persecution. 
In  this  way  New  England  was  colonized  by  Separatists  and 
Puritans,  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  by  Quakers,  Mary 
land  in  part  by  Roman  Catholics,  and  Carolina  and  Georgia 
largely  by  Huguenots  and  German  Protestants.  In  New 
Amsterdam  the  Dutch  Protestant  Church  was  established. 
The  Church  of  England  was  established  in  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  in  1693,  but  there  was  no  religious  persecution. 
It  became  supreme  in  Maryland  after  1691,  and  was  estab 
lished  in  the  Carolinas  in  1706. 

Degrees  of  Tolerance. — Of  the  colonies,  Massachusetts 
and  Virginia  were  the  most  intolerant  in  religious  matters, 
the  Puritans  in  the  one',  the  Episcopalians  in  the  other, 
seeking  to  keep  out  all  settlers  of  other  sects.  The  same 
was  the  case  for  a  time  with  the  Dutch  Protestants  of 
New  Amsterdam.  These  efforts  failed,  and  some  degree 


476    STAGES  OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  religious   liberty  was  in  time  admitted  in  all  the  col 
onies. 

Religious  tolerance  was  provided  for  in  the  charter  of 
Maryland,  the  king  perhaps  fearing  that  Lord  Baltimore, 
being  a  Roman  Catholic,  might  oppress  the  Protestants. 
It  was  adopted  in  Pennsylvania,  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 
Of  all  the  colonies,  however,  Rhode  Island  was  the  most 
tolerant.  In  the  other  colonies  freedom  of  worship  was 
restricted  to  Christians  ;  there  it  was  extended  to  all  persons 
without  distinction. 

2.    LATER   DEVELOPMENT    OF   GOVERNMENT. 

Franklin's  Plan  of  Union. — A  convention  of  delegates 
from  the  northern  colonies,  to  devise  measures  of  defence 
against  the  French,  was  held  at  Al 
bany  in  1754.      Benjamin   Franklin 
was  one  of  the  delegates,  and  pro 
posed  a  plan  for  a  union  of  the  colo 
nies,  which  was  accepted  by  the  con 
vention,  though  it  was  not  adopted 
by  the  country.     The  colonies,  jeal 
ous  of  their  independence,  thought 
5  ^r/Ffff^    "'         that  it  took  too  much  power  from 
BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.        them  to  give  to  the  general  govern 
ment.  The  British  authorities  thought 

that  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the  colonies.     Between 
these  opposite  jealousies  the  plan  fell  to  the  ground.1 


1  Before  leaving  home  to  attend  the  convention,  Franklin,  to  whom 
the  necessity  for  union  seemed  great,  made  a  warm  appeal  for  it  in  his 
paper,  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  and  headed  it  with  a  rude  but  sig 
nificant  wood-cut.  This  represented  the  colonies  by  a  snake  cut  into 
thirteen  pieces,  each  piece  marked  with  the  initial  letter  of  the  name 
j)f  a  colony.  Under  it  was  the  motto  "  Unite  or  die." 


LATER   DEVELOPMENT  OF  GOVERNMENT.  477 

What  Franklin  Proposed.— The  following  were  the 
leading  features  of  Franklin's  plan.  He  suggested  Philadel 
phia,  the  most  central  large  city,  as  the  capital  of  the  pro 
posed  confederacy.  The  government  sitting  here  was  to 
consist  of  a  grand  council,  elected  every  third  year  by  the 
colonies,  but  meeting  once  a  year;  and  a  governor-general 
appointed  by  the  king  and  with  power  of  veto  over  all  laws. 
This  central  government  was  to  have  the  power  to  make 
general  laws,  to  levy  taxes,  to  regulate  commerce,  and  to 
perform  other  governmental  duties.  The  proposal  was  in 
advance  of  public  opinion,  and  was  rejected,  but  Franklin 
lived  to  see  its  essential  features  embodied  in  the  Constitu 
tion  of  the  United  States. 

The  Stamp  Act  Congress. — The  next  step  toward  colo 
nial  union  was  taken  in  1765,  when  the  oppressive  actions 
of  the  British  government  caused  the  colonies  to  elect  del 
egates  to  a  congress  to  be  held  at  New  York,  to  consider 
the  situation.  Delegates  came  from  nine  of  the  colonies. 
This,  which  is  known  as  the  "  Stamp  Act  Congress,"  issued 
an  appeal  to  the  king  for  American  rights. 

The  Continental  Congresses. — A  further  step  toward  a 
congress  was  taken  in  the  formation  of  "  committees  of  cor 
respondence"  between  the  colonies.  This  was  followed  by 
the  election  of  delegates  to  the  "  First  Continental  Congress," 
which  met  September  5,  1774,  all  the  colonies  but  Georgia 
being  represented.  On  May  10,  1775,  a  "  Second  Conti 
nental  Congress"  met,  with  delegates  from  all  the  colonies. 
This  issued  a  "  Declaration  of  Colonial  Rights,"  and  in  1776 
a  "  Declaration  of  Independence." 

On  June  11,  1776,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare 
a  form  of  confederation  for  the  States,  by  which  name  the 
colonies  now  called  themselves.  A  plan  was  formed  and 
gradually  ratified  by  the  States,  Maryland  being  the  last  to 


478     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ratify  it  (January  30,  1781).  The  first  Congress  under  the 
Confederation  met  March  2, 1781.  The  Second  Continental 
Congress  had  continued  in  existence  till  that  time. 

Weakness  of  the  Confederation. — The  Confederation 
was  a  weak  and  almost  powerless  body.  The  important 
power  of  taxation  was  retained  by  the  States,  which  proved 
a  fatal  defect.  Its  Congress,  which  chose  for  the  new  gov 
ernment  the  name  of  the  u  United  States  of  America,1'  was 
to  meet  annually,  and  to  consist  of  not  less  than  two  or 
more  than  seven  members  from  any  State.  There  was  no 
President,  Congress  retaining  the  executive  power. 

The  weakness  of  the  new  government  soon  became  evi 
dent.  It  could  pass  laws,  but  could  not  make  the  people 
obey  them.  It  could  incur  debt,  but  could  not  lay  a  tax  on 
the  people  with  which  to  raise  money  to  pay  its  debts.  The 
States  were  to  provide  money  for  this  purpose,  but  failed  to 
do  so.  They  were  jealous  of  each  other,  and  each  acted  as 
an  independent  nation.  "  We  are,"  said  Washington,  "  one 
nation  to-day,  and  thirteen  to-morrow." 

The  Constitutional  Convention. — This  state  of  affairs 
could  not  continue.  The  Confederation  grew  so  weak  that 
the  States  hardly  troubled  themselves  to  send  delegates  to  its 
Congress,  and  it  became  difficult  to  get  a  quorum  together. 
It  grew  apparent  that  there  must  be  a  strong  central  gov 
ernment  or  none  at  all ;  one  strong  nation  or  thirteen  weak 
ones.  The  last  alternative  frightened  the  States.  They 
were  already  pressed  and  threatened  by  foreign  nations. 
Feeling  that  they  could  not  stand  alone,  they  consented  to 
call  a  convention  to  revise  the  Articles  of  Confederation, 
and  this  convention  met  at  Philadelphia  in  1787. 

The  Work  of  the  Convention. — The  convention  con 
tinued  in  secret  session  for  four  months.  When  it  adjourned 
it  was  found  to  have  thrown  aside  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 


LATER   DEVELOPMENT  OF  GOVERNMENT.  479 

tion  and  formed  an  entirely  new  Constitution.  This  "  Con 
stitution  of  the  United  States  of  America"  is  the  form  of 
government  under  which  our  country  has  risen  to  its  present 
proud  eminence  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

It  gave  Congress  (composed  of  Representatives,  elected 
by  the  people,  and  Senators,  elected  by  the  States)  full 
power  to  make  laws  and  lay  taxes. 

It  formed  an  executive  branch  of  the  government  (con 
sisting  of  the  President  and  Vice-President)  with  full  power 
to  enforce  the  laws,  to  make  treaties  (with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate),  and  to  perform  other  duties. 

It  added  a  judicial  department  (the  Supreme  Court),  whose 
duty  it  was  to  decide  what  acts  of  Congress  were  in  accord 
ance  with  the  Constitution.  Any  law,  treaty,  act,  or  pro 
posal  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Supreme  Court  be 
comes  illegal  and  cannot  be  enforced. 

Several  amendments  have  been  made  to  the  Constitution, 
but  in  its  leading  features  it  remains  intact.  The  several 
States  have  also  adopted  constitutions  based  largely  upon 
that  of  the  general  government. 

,  Election  of  President. — It  was  considered  by  the  Con 
vention  that  Congress  could  not  be  trusted  to  elect  the 
President,  since  he  might  be  controlled  by  it  in  his  action. 
And  the  people  at  large  seemed  too  extensive  a  body  to  se 
lect  the  best  man  for  President.  It  was  therefore  decided 
that  in  each  State  a  number  of  men  of  known  judgment 
and  ability  should  be  elected  by  the  people,  and  that  these, 
known  as  electors,  should  nominate  and  vote  for  candidates 
for  the  Presidential  office.1  If  none  of  those  voted  for  by 


1  In  the  first  election  under  the  Constitution  it  was  decided  that  the 
electors  should  be  chosen  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January,  they 
should  meet  to  cast  their  votes  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  February,  and 


480     STAGES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  electors  had  a  majority  of  the  whole,  the  House  of  Rep 
resentatives  was  to  select  the  President  from  those  voted  for. 

Each  elector  voted  for  two  candidates,  the  one  receiving 
the  highest  number  of  votes  to  be  President,  the  other  Vice- 
President.  This  method  ceased  in  1804,  after  which  they 
voted  expressly  for  President  and  Vice-President.  It  was 
supposed  that  the  electors  would  be  independent  in  voting, 
but  they  soon  became  pledged  to  vote  for  certain  candidates 
chosen  by  the  parties  in  advance.  Thus  the  purpose  de 
signed  in  the  Constitution  became  defeated,  and  the  elec 
toral  system  grew  useless.  It  is  now  looked  upon  as  a 
piece  of  political  machinery  that  could  well  be  dispensed 
with. 

The  Convention  System. — The  first  method  in  which 
the  parties  expressed  their  choice  for  Presidential  candi 
dates  was  by  a  caucus  held  by  the  members  of  Congress 
of  the  respective  parties.  In  1812  a  convention  of  political 
leaders  representing  eleven  States  met  in  New  York  and 
nominated  De  Witt  Clinton  for  President.  In  1830  a  nom 
inating  convention  was  called  by  the  Anti-Mason  party. 
This  action  was  followed  in  1831  by  the  National  Republi 
can,  and  in  1832  by  the  Democratic  party.  Since  then  all 
candidates  for  President  and  Vice-President  have  been  nom 
inated  by  national  conventions  of  the  party  leaders.  The 
first  party  platform,  or  declaration  of  principles,  was  made 
by  the  Democratic  National  Convention  of  1840.  Since 
then  it  has  been  customary  for  all  nominating  conventions 
to  adopt  a  platform  of  principles. 

the  President  should  take  his  seat  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  March. 
In  1789  this  happened  to  be  the  4th  of  March,  and  that  date  is  still 
maintained  for  the  beginning  of  each  new  administration  and  Congress, 
though  the  dates  of  elect'on  and  of  the  meeting  of  electors  have  been 
changed. 


LATER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  GOVERNMENT.  481 

The  Emancipation  Proclamation. — The  most  important 
change  in  political  conditions  since  the  adoption  of  the  Con 
stitution  was  made  by  the  Proclamation  of  Emancipation 
announced  by  President  Lincoln  September  22,  1862,  and 
issued  January  1,  1863.  Under  the  action  of  this,  and  of 
the  thirteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  slavery  ceased 
to  exist  in  the  United  States.  The  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
amendments  made  citizens  of  the  recent  slaves  and  gave 
them  the  full  right  of  suffrage. 

Woman  Suffrage. — For  years  past  an  agitation  in  favor 
of  giving  women  the  right  to  vote  has  been  kept  up.  Par 
tial  woman  suffrage  now  exists  in  a  majority  of  the  States. 
The  Territory  of  Wyoming  gave  them  in  1869  the  right  to 
vote  at  all  elections.  Full  woman  suffrage  now  exists  in 
four  States,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Idaho.1 

Departments  and  Cabinet  Officers. — As  it  was  impos 
sible  for  the  President  to  attend  to  all  the  executive  duties 
of  the  government,  a  number  of  executive  departments  have 
been  established  by  Congress.  These  consist  of  the  Depart 
ments  of  State,  War,  and  the  Treasury,  formed  in  1789 ; 
the  Post-Office,  formed  temporarily  in  1789,  permanently  in 
1794 ;  the  Navy,  in  1798  ;  Justice,  in  1820 ;  the  Interior,  in 
1849  ;  Agriculture,  in  1889  ;  Commerce  and  Labor,  in  1903. 
They  are  under  the  Secretaries  of  State,  War,  the  Treasury, 
the  Navy,  Agriculture,  and  Commerce  and  Labor,  the  Post 
master-General,  and  the  Attorney-General. 

No  Cabinet,  or  body  of  advisers  of  the  President,  was 
contemplated  by  the  Constitution,  but  President  Washington 

1  It  is  proper  here  lo  say  that  universal  male  suffrage  was  only  grad 
ually  gained.  In  colonial  times  there  was  in  every  colony  some  prop 
erty  or  other  qualification  attached  to  the  suffrage.  Even  after  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution  these  restrictions  continued,  and  were  only 
gradually  removed  by  legislation  in  the  States. 

31 


482     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS  IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

frequently  consulted  the  heads  of  departments  on  important 
subjects.  Since  then  meetings  of  these  officials  have  been 
called  for  joint  consultation  with  the  President.  They  thus 
became  important  members  of  the  executive  branch  of  the 
government,  though  with  no  power  beyond  that  of  advice. 
They  have  long  been  known,  in  their  combined  capacity, 
under  the  name  of  the  Cabinet. 

Presidential  Succession. — An  act  was  passed  in  1886 
providing  a  series  of  successors  to  the  Presidency  in  case 
of  the  death,  resignation,  inability,  or  removal  of  the  Pres 
ident  and  Vice-President.  Under  the  present  law  the  order 
of  succession  is,  (1)  the  Secretary  of  State,  (2)  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  (3)  Secretary  of  War,  (4)  Attorney-General, 
(5)  Postmaster-General,  (6)  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  (7) 
Secretary  of  the  Interior.  The  Secretaries  of  Agriculture 
and  Commerce  and  Labor  are  omitted  from  this  list,  as 
these  departments  did  not  then  exist. 

3.    POLITICAL   PARTIES. 

Diversity  of  Opinion. — As  no  two  men  in  the  world 
look  just  alike,  so  no  two  think  just  alike.  Political  opin 
ions  everywhere  vary,  and  political  parties  are  everywhere 
formed.  The  first  parties  of  this  country  were  those  of  the 
Revolution,  the  Whigs  and  Tories,  the  former  in  favor  of 
independence,  the  latter  in  favor  of  English  rule.  The 
Tories  ceased  to  exist  as  a  party  after  independence  was 
gained.  The  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787  gave  rise 
to  the  first  political  parties  of  the  new  republic,  the  Fed 
eralists  and  Anti-Federalists. 

Federal  Party. — This  party  was  composed  of  those  who 
favored  a  strong  central  government,  and  who  therefore 
supported  and  voted  for  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 
It  ceased  to  exist  after  the  election  of  1816. 


POLITICAL  PARTIES.  483 

Anti-Federal  Party. — This  party  was  made  up  of  those 
who  opposed  the  Constitution,  on  the  plea  that  it  would 
give  the  central  government  a  dangerous  power.  It  disap 
peared  after  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

Democratic-Republican  Party. — During  Washington's 
first  administration  a  new  party  arose,  formed  of  the  old 
A^ti-Federalists  and  others  opposed  to  the  government.  It 
was  named  the  Republican  party  by  its  leader,  Thomas  Jef 
ferson.  During  the  French  Revolution  many  "  Democratic 
Clubs,"  formed  of  those  who  sympathized  with  the  Revo 
lutionists,  were  formed  in  this  country.  During  1794r-95 
these  Democrats  united  with  the  Republicans,  and  the  party 
gradually  became  known  as  the  Democratic-Republican. 
It  maintained  the  doctrine  of  State  rights  and  opposed  a 
strong  central  government. 

Democratic  Party. — The  opposition  of  the  Federal  party 
to  the  war  of  1812-15  destroyed  its  influence  as  a  party, 
and  for  a  period  after  its  disappearance  there  was  only  one 
party  in  the  country,  the  Democratic-Republican,  which, 
after  1824,  gradually  became  known  as  the  Democratic.  It 
favored  State  rights  and  opposed  high  duties  on  imported 
goods.  It  still  exists  as  one  of  the  great  parties  of  the 
country.1 

National  Republican  Party. — In  1828  a  party  under  this 
name  grew  out  of  the  Democratic  party.  It  favored  high 
tariff  and  public  improvements  by  the  government. 

Whig-  Party. — The  National  Republicans  gradually  as 
sumed  the  name  of  Whigs,  by  which  they  were  generally 
known  after  1836.  This  party  was  strong  during  several 

1  In  1827  an  organization  called  the  Anti-Mason  party  arose,  on  ac 
count  of  a  murder  attributed  to  the  Freemasons.  It  opposed  that 
order  as  a  dangerous  secret  party,  whose  civil  duties  were  subordinated 
to  its  society  obligations.  This  party  disappeared  after  1835. 


484     STAGES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

administrations,  but  vanished  in  the  North  after  1850.  The 
name  was  retained  in  the  South  till  1860. 

Liberty  Party. — In  1839  a  political  organization  was 
formed  calling  itself  the  Liberty  party,  but  generally  known 
as  the  ANTI-SLAVERY  or  ABOLITIONIST  party.  It  was  com 
posed  of  the  opponents  of  slavery,  and  merged  in  1848  into 
the  Free-Soil  party.1 

Free-Soil  Party. — This  organization,  formed  in  1848  by 
seceding  Whigs,  was  composed  of  those  who  opposed  the 
extension  of  slavery  into  the  Territories.  It  absorbed  the 
Liberty  party. 

American  Party. — An  organization  called  the  Native 
American  party  was  formed  in  New  York  in  1835.  It  op 
posed  the  rapid  naturalization  and  office-holding  of  for 
eigners.  It  disappeared  after  1845,  and  was  succeeded  in 
1852  by  a  similar  organization,  whose  motto  was  "  Ameri 
cans  shall  rule  America."  This,  called  the  American  party, 
was  secret  in  its  operations,  and  became  known  as  the 
KNOW-NOTHING  party,  as  its  members,  when  questioned, 
professed  to  know  nothing  about  its  secrets.  It  spread 
widely,  but  continued  only  a  few  years. 

Republican  Party. — In  1854-55  an  organization  was 
formed  known  as  "  Anti-Nebraska  Men,"  and  opposed  to 
the  further  extension  of  slavery.  They  soon  adopted  the 
name  Republican,  under  which  they  were  known  in  the 
election  year  of  1856.  This  party  absorbed  the  remnants 


1  During  a  meeting  at  Tammany  Hall,  New  York,  in  1835,  there  was 
much  confusion,  during  which  the  lights  were  suddenly  extinguished. 
The  meeting  was  partly  made  up  of  a  faction  of  the  Democrats,  called 
the  Equal  Rights  party.  Some  of  these  were  provided  with  what  were 
then  known  as  loco-foco  matches  (invented  in  1829),  and  the  candles 
were  soon  relighted.  Thence  this  party  became  known  as  the  Loco- 
Foco  party. 


POLITICAL  PARTIES.  485 

of  the  Whigs,  Free-Soilers,  Americans,  and  other  minor 
organizations.  It  advocated  a  high  protective  tariff,  strong 
central  government,  and  the  non-extension  of  slavery.  It 
continues  one  of  the  leading  parties  of  the  country.1 

National  Prohibition  Party. — This  organization,  often 
called  the  TEMPERANCE  party,  was  formed  in  1869,  and  advo 
cates  the  prohibition  of  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxi 
cating  liquors.2 

Greenback  Party. — This  organization  was  formed  in 
1876,  and  advocated  an  unlimited  issue  of  "  greenbacks,1'  or 
government  paper  currency.  It  soon  disappeared. 

People's  Party. — An  organization  of  farmers,  known  as 
the  FARMERS'  ALLIANCE,  was  formed  about  1873,  for  the  pur 
pose  of  securing  legislation  in  favor  of  agricultural  interests. 
In  1885  a  similar  party  was  formed,  under  the  name  of 
FARMERS'  UNION.  These  parties  were  combined  in  1889  as 
the  NATIONAL  FARMERS'  ALLIANCE,  whose  platform  made  more 
extended  and  radical  demands. 

In  addition  to  these  there  have  been  various  labor  par 
ties,  the  UNITED  LABOR,  the  PROGRESSIVE  LABOR,  the  NATIONAL, 
etc.,  of  which  the  UNION  LABOR  party,  formed  in  1887,  be 
came  the  successor.  From  these  various  organizations  in 
favor  of  agriculture  and  labor  arose  in  1891  the  PEOPLE'S 
party,  more  commonly  known  as  the  POPULIST  party.  The 

1  In  1860  a  Southern  section  of  the  Democratic  party,  favoring  slavery, 
took  the  title  of  the  National  Democratic  party.     Another  Southern 
party,  formed  from  fragments  of  the  Whigs  and  Americans,  called 
itself  the  Constitutional  Union  party.     They  each  made  a  nomination 
in  that  year. 

2  In  1871  a  reform  section  of  the  Republican  party  fused  with  the 
Democrats,  under  the  name  of  the  Liberal  Republican.     It  disappeared 
in  1876.     The  "  Stalwarts"  were  a  section  of  the  Republicans  who  sup 
ported  Grant  for  a  third  term  in  1880,  and  the  "  Mugwumps"  the  inde 
pendent  Republicans  who  opposed  Elaine  in  1884. 


486     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS  IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

platform  of  this  was  strongly  radical  and  socialistic  in  its 
demands,  advocating  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  government 
ownership  of  railroads  and  telegraphs,  government  loans  on 
farm  produce,  etc.1 

4.  THE  STORY  OF  SLAVERY. 

Introduction  of  Slavery. — In  the  annals  of  Virginia  for 
1619  we  find  the  following  remark  by  Rolfe,  who  married 
Pocahontas  and  introduced  the  culture  of  tobacco  :  "  About 
the  last  of  August  came  in  a  Dutch  marine-of-war,  that  sold 
us  20  Negars."  With  this  brief  record  began  the  long  chain 
of  events  that  led  to  the  great  Civil  War. 

At  that  period  slavery  was  common  in  the  civilized  world, 
and  all  the  maritime  nations  of  Europe  traded  in  negroes. 
There  were  already  multitudes  of  slaves  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  now  they  were  introduced  into  the  first  British  colony. 

The  Apprentice  System. — Slaves  did  not  increase  rapidly 
in  Virginia.  Numbers  of  "  apprentices,"  as  they  were  called, 
were  sent  to  that  and  most  of  the  other  colonies.  These 
were  whites,  who  were  indentured  to  the  planters  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  kept  in  a  state  of  servitude  that  was 
like  slavery.  Some  of  them  were  criminals,  some  prisoners 
of  war,  some  kidnapped  persons,  some  homeless  children, 
while  some  had  bound  themselves  voluntarily  that  they 
might  get  to  America. 

Spread  of  Slavery. — The  system  of  slave-holding  grad 
ually  extended  until  every  colony  had  slaves.  Oglethorpe 

1  The  1896  and  1900  elections  brought  new  parties  and  factions 
into  the  field,  including  the  Silver  Republican  and  the  National  (gold) 
Democratic, — which  opposed  the  main  bodies  of  their  respective  par 
ties  on  the  question  of  the  monetary  standard, — and  two  factions  of 
the  Populist  party.  There  were  also  the  Nationalist,  the  Socialist 
Labor,  the  Social  Democratic,  and  the  United  Christian  parties. 


THE  STORY  OF  SLAVERY.  487 

tried  to  keep  them  out  of  Georgia,  but  failed.  Slaves  were 
never  very  numerous  in  the  North.  They  were  of  no  par 
ticular  advantage  in  the  fields,  and  were  kept  chiefly  in  the 
cities,  as  house-servants.  In  the  South  they  were  princi 
pally  employed  as  field-hands,  and  proved  very  useful  in 
colonial  times  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  indigo,  and  rice. 
Malarial  fever  made  the  rice-fields  dangerous  to  whites, 
while  it  seldom  attacked  the  blacks. 

Growth  of  Slavery. — By  the  year  1740  about  one  hun 
dred  and  thirty  thousand  negroes  had  been  brought  to  this 
country.  By  1776  more  than  three  hundred  thousand  had 
been  brought  here,  and  there  were  probably  five  hundred 
thousand  in  the  country.  In  1790  there  were  six  hundred 
and  fifty-seven  thousand  slaves  in  the  South  and  forty  thou 
sand  three  hundred  in  the  North.  These  were  found  in 
every  State  except  Massachusetts — and  Maine,  which  was 
part  of  it.  New  York  had  more  than  twenty  thousand. 
Here  they  were  employed  on  the  farms  as  well  as  in  the 
houses.  Indentured  servants  largely  took  the  place  of  slaves 
in  Pennsylvania. 

The  State  constitution  of  Vermont  (not  yet  admitted  to 
the  Union)  in  1777,  of  Massachusetts  in  1780,  and  of  New 
Hampshire  in  1783,  abolished  slavery.  Pennsylvania  pro 
vided  for  gradual  abolition  in  1780,  Rhode  Island  and  Con 
necticut  in  1784,  New  York  in  1799,  and  New  Jersey  in 
1804.  By  1810  there  were  no  slaves  in  the  States  north  of 
the  Mason  and  Dixon  line. 

Slave  Insurrections. — The  first  serious  insurrection  of 
the  slaves  took  place  in  New  York  City  in  1712.  They  were 
treated  severely,  twenty-four  being  put  to  death,  some  of 
them  in  the  cruel  ways  then  common.  An  uprising  of  slaves 
took  place  in  South  Carolina  in  1740,  and  was  only  quelled 
by  force  of  arms.  In  1741,  on  an  alarm  of  an  intended 


488     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

insurrection  in  New  York  City,  thirty-three  slaves  were 
executed,  thirteen  of  them  being  put  to  death  by  fire.  In 
those  days  people  were  far  more  cruel  than  they  are  to 
day. 

Objections  to  Slavery. — Slavery  was  objected  to  at  an 
early  date,  and  movements  in  favor  of  emancipation  began 
soon  after  1700.  Many  of  the  people  of  Virginia,  and  even 
of  Carolina,  showed  a  preference  for  white  labor.  The 
rapid  increase  of  slaves  was  due  to  England,  not  to  Amer 
ica.  Laws  to  restrict  the  importation  of  slaves  were  numer 
ous  in  colonial  times,  but  Great  Britain  found  the  slave-trade 
profitable  and  persisted  in  sending  negroes,  whom  the  colo 
nists  were  forced  to  accept.1 

The  feeling  of  Americans  in  the  eighteenth  century  is 
shown  by  the  action  of  the  Second  Continental  Congress, 
which,  on  April  6,  1776,  resolved  "  that  no  slaves  should 
be  imported  into  any  of  the  thirteen  united  colonies."  This 
decree  was  not  carried  out.  A  second  indication  was 
shown  in  1787,  in  the  ordinance  for  the  government  of  the 
Northwest  Territory,  which  decreed  that  slavery  should  be 
forever  excluded  from  that  Territory.  In  1790  a  petition 
was  presented  to  Congress,  headed  by  the  name  of  Benja 
min  Franklin,  asking  for  legislation  looking  to  the  ultimate 
extinction  of  slavery.  Washington  and  Jefferson  both 
favored  this  measure.  It  was  fully  debated  in  Congress, 
which  finally  decided  that  this  question  belonged  to  the 
States,  and  was  beyond  the  powers  of  the  Federal  govern 
ment. 

Slavery  in  the  Constitution. — The  word  "  slave1'  does 
not  occur  in  the  Constitution.  Slaves  are  designated  as 

1  Rancroft  says,  "  The  sovereigns  of  England  and  Spain  were  the 
greatest  slave-merchants  in  the  world." 


THE  STORY  OF  SLAVERY.  489 

"  other  persons1'  and  "  such  persons."  But  in  drafting  the 
Constitution  the  question  arose  whether  slaves  should  be 
counted  in  reckoning  the  number  of  Representatives  in 
Congress  to  which  each  State  was  entitled.  Finally  it  was 
agreed  that  three-fifths  of  the  slaves  should  be  counted. 
Then  arose  the  question  of  the  slave-trade.  Should  this 
be  continued.  It  was  finally  decided  that  no  slaves  should 
be  brought  into  the  country  after  1807.  It  was  also  agreed 
that  runaway  slaves  should  be  returned  to  their  owners. 

The  Cotton-Gin. — Up  to  1793  slavery  was  not  a  highly 
popular  institution  North  or  South.  It  might  have  grad 
ually  died  out  but  for  the  invention,  in  that  year,  of  the 
cotton-gin.  Before  then  it  had  not  been  profitable  to  raise 
cotton  in  this  country.  Afterward  it  became  very  profit 
able,  and  slaves  became  highly  important  to  the  South,  as 
workers  in  the  cotton-fields.  Slavery  was  also  important  to 
cotton  manufacturers  in  the  North,  and  the  movement  for 
abolition  nearly  disappeared.  In  1 807  Congress  passed  an 
act,  in  accordance  with  the  Constitution,  abolishing  the 
slave-trade  after  January  1,  1808.  Since  then  no  slaves 
have  been  legally  imported  into  this  country. 

The  Louisiana  Purchase. — The  purchase  of  the  great 
territory  of  Louisiana  by  President  Jefferson  in  1803  opened 
the  way  for  a  new  slavery  question.  Slavery  had  been 
abolished  in  the  Northwest  Territory  ;  should  it  be  admitted 
to  the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi  ?  The  South  advo 
cated  it ;  the  North  opposed  it,  on  the  ground  that  it  would 
give  the  slave  States  a  controlling  majority  in  Congress. 
The  question  was  finally  settled  in  1820  by  the  Missouri 
Compromise.  Under  this,  Missouri  was  admitted  as  a  slave 
State,  but  with  the  condition  that  all  new  States  north  of 
the  parallel  of  36°  30'  should  be  free  States.  ^This  removed 
the  question  from  Congress  until  1854. 


490     STAGES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Liberator. — Meanwhile,  a  sentiment  in  favor  of  the 
emancipation  of  slaves  arose  in  the  North.  Gradual  aboli 
tion  was  advocated,  and  a  paper  was  published  in  Baltimore 
on  this  basis,  on  which  was  engaged  a  young  man  named 
William  Lloyd  Garrison.  In  1831  he  took  a  new  and 
radical  step.  On  January  1  of  that  year  he  began  in  Boston 
the  publication  of  a  newspaper  named  The  Liberator,  in 
which  he  advocated  "  the  immediate  and  unconditional 
emancipation  of  every  slave  held  in  the  United  States." 
This  new  and  extreme  demand  raised  a  storm.  The  South 
ern  planters  said  that  the  editor  must  be  mad.  Northerners 
generally  seemed  to  hold  the  same  opinion.  Garrison  was 
a  man  of  one  idea,  and  he  worked  away  on  that  idea  until 
he  won  many  followers.  Abolition  sentiment  began  to 
spread. 

Abolition  Societies. — In  1832,  Garrison  founded  the 
New  England  Anti-Slavery  Society.  In  1833  a  convention 
at  Philadelphia  founded  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society. 
In  1831  a  negro  insurrection  broke  out  in  Virginia  in  which 
more  than  sixty  people  were  murdered.  In  consequence 
of  all  this  a  feeling  of  excitement  arose ;  the  gradual  abo 
lition  idea  disappeared ;  the  slave  laws  were  made  more 
severe ;  many  Southerners  believed  that  Garrison  was 
seeking  to  rouse  the  slaves  to  massacre  their  masters. 

Northern  Sympathy. — In  the  North  there  was  much 
sympathy  with  the  South.  Garrison  and  his  party  were 
looked  upon  as  dangerous  fanatics.  Abolition  meetings 
were  broken  up  by  mobs.  On  one  occasion  a  riot  broke 
out  in  Boston,  in  which  Garrison  was  dragged  through  the 
streets  with  a  rope  tied  round  his  body.  His  life  was  saved 
with  great  difficulty. 

This  violence  continued  until  about  1840.  But  in  spite 
of  it  the  abolition  sentiment  grew.  In  a  few  years  nearly 


THE  STORY   OF  SLAVERY.  491 

two  thousand  societies  were  formed.  Petitions  against  the 
extension  of  slavery  were  poured  into  Congress.  John 
Quincy  Adams,  who  was  their  leading  advocate,  sometimes 
presented  more  than  two  hundred  of  them  in  a  single  day, 
despite  the  opposition  of  Southern  members. 

The  Underground.  Railroad. — While  all  this  was  going 
on,  many  slaves  were  escaping  to  the  North,  where  they 
were  sheltered  and  protected  by  the  abolitionists.  Slaves 
were  rescued  from  the  officers  who  sought  to  arrest  them, 
and  many  were  aided  to  escape,  and  were  concealed  and 
passed  on  secretly  to  Canada.  This  grew  into  a  regular 
system,  which  became  known  as  the  Underground  Rail 
road.  It  was  aided  by  the  feeling  of  opposition  to  the  new 
fugitive  slave  law.  Several  States  passed  laws  to  prevent 
negroes  from  being  seized  and  returned  without  trial  to 
slavery. 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. — In  1852  was  published  a  book 
whose  influence  was  remarkable.  This  was  Mrs.  Stowe's 
"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  which  depicted  in  vivid  dramatic 
language  the  darker  aspects  of  slavery.  It  was  read  by 
millions,  roused  strong  feeling,  and  added  enormously  to 
the  number  of  abolitionists. 

The  Kansas  Troubles. — In  1854  an  act  was  passed  by 
Congress  which  virtually  repealed  the  Missouri  Compromise. 
In  Kansas,  which  came  within  the  free  territory  fixed  by 
that  compromise,  it  was  left  to  the  decision  of  the  inhabitants 
whether  it  should  be  admitted  as  a  slave  or  a  free  State. 
Civil  war  on  a  small  scale  ensued.  In  the  end  the  North 
ern  party  won,  but  the  feeling  of  bitterness  grew  more 
intense. 

The  Dred  Scott  Decision. — In  1857  a  negro  named 
Dred  Scott  claimed  freedom  from  his  master  on  the  plea 
that  he  had  lived  with  him  for  years  in  a  free  State.  The 


492     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

Supreme  Court  decided  against  his  plea,  and  affirmed  that 
owners  might  take  their  slaves  into  any  State  without  for 
feiting  their  rights.  This  decision,  which  opened  the  way 
for  the  taking  of  slaves  into  the  free  States,  increased  the 
strength  of  abolitionism. 

The  John  Brown  Raid. — John  Brown's  raid  upon  the 
United  States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  1859,  and  his 
proclamation  of  freedom  to  the  neighboring  slaves,  was 
another  important  event  in  the  history  of  slavery.  His 
effort  added  greatly  to  the  irritation  of  the  South,  and 
increased  the  general  excitement  on  the  great  question  of 
the  day. 

The  Republican  Party. — The  growth  of  abolition  sen 
timent  in  the  North  played  a  leading  part  in  the  forma 
tion  of  the  new  Republican  party,  which  in  1856  showed 
strength  enough  to  gain  eleven  States  for  its  candidate.  In 
1860  it  swept  the  North,  and  elected  Abraham  Lincoln  to 
the  Presidency. 

Slavery  in  the  War. — Civil  war  followed.  Lincoln  de 
clared  that  it  was  his  duty  to  restore  the  Union,  not  to 
suppress  slavery.  But  some  action  on  this  subject  could 
not  be  avoided.  It  pressed  itself  on  the  attention  of  Union 
generals.  In  May,  1861,  General  Butler  refused  to  return 
some  fugitive  slaves  to  their  owner,  saying  that  they  were 
"  contraband  of  war."  In  August,  1861,  General  Fremont 
issued  a  proclamation  proclaiming  the  freedom  of  the  slaves 
of  enemies  of  the  United  States.  This  action  was  annulled 
by  the  President,  as  was  also  a  subsequent  proclamation  by 
General  Hunter,  who  declared  the  slaves  in  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida  to  be  free. 

The  Emancipation  Proclamation. — Lincoln,  meanwhile, 
was  carefully  considering  the  subject,  and  at  length  decided 
that  the  sentiment  in  the  North  in  favor  of  freeing  the 


PROGRESS  OF  FINANCE.  493 

slaves  was  so  strong  that  it  was  time  for  him  to  act.  He 
waited  a  suitable  time  to  speak,  and  this  seemed  to  come 
after  the  battle  of  Antietam.  He  therefore,  on  September 
22,  1862,  issued  a  proclamation,  in  which  he  stated  that 
on  the  first  day  of  January,  1863,  u  all  persons  held  as 
slaves  within  any  State  or  designated  part  of  a  State,  the 
people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever  free." 

The  Thirteenth  Amendment. — The  Emancipation  Proc 
lamation  did  not  free  all  the  slaves.  Those  in  territory 
under  Union  control  at  the  time  of  its  issue  remained  in 
slavery.  The  final  step  was  taken  in  1865  when  Congress 
and  the  States  adopted  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
which  forever  abolished  slavery  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States. 

Results  of  Emancipation. — During  the  period  that  has 
since  elapsed  the  bitter  feeling  which  once  existed  regard 
ing  slavery  has  happily  passed  away.  A  new  and  satisfac 
tory  system  of  labor  has  arisen,  and  slavery  would  not  be 
accepted  again  were  the  opportunity  offered.  Its  aboli 
tion  has  stimulated  a  more  varied  series  of  industries  in 
the  South,  manufacturing  is  growing  there  with  highly  en 
couraging  rapidity,  and  a  condition  of  wealth  and  pros 
perity  is  arising  which  certainly  could  not  have  appeared 
in  so  brief  a  time  under  the  former  conditions  of  slave 
labor. 

5.    PROGRESS  OF  FINANCE. 

Colonial  Finance. — The  money  needed  to  conduct  the 
affairs  of  the  colonies  was  raised  by  various  forms  of  tax 
ation.  Quit-rents,  or  small  annual  payments  for  grants  of 
land,  satisfied  the  king  and  the  proprietaries.  Virginia  laid 
an  export  duty  on  tobacco.  Other  colonies  raised  money 


494     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

by  duties  and  port  charges.  To  some  extent  money  was 
obtained  by  direct  taxation,  or  taxes  on  the  property  and 
products  of  the  people.  But  the  government  expenses 
were  light  and  taxation  was  rarely  a  burden.  The  most 
expensive  government  was  that  of  New  York,  due  largely 
to  its  border  wars.  Here  the  taxes  were  levied  in  an  unjust 
and  oppressive  manner  that  caused  much  irritation. 

Paper  Money. — The  expensive  Port  Royal  expedition  of 
Massachusetts  in  1690  threw  that  colony  into  debt,  and 
paper  money  was  issued  as  a  temporary  expedient.  Wars 
and  other  causes  in  time  brought  debt  upon  the  other  colo 
nies,  and  all  except  Virginia  followed  this  example.  This 
paper  currency  depreciated  largely  in  value,  but  it  was  grad 
ually  redeemed  with  money  raised  by  taxation,  and  the 
system  worked  fairly  well  in  enabling  the  colonies  to  meet 
sudden  emergencies. 

The  colonies  vigorously  retained  the  right  of  taxing 
themselves,  and  in  many  cases  of  paying  their  own  officials, 
and  the  attempt  of  the  British  government  to  tax  them 
without  their  consent  was  the  main  cause  of  the  Revolu 
tionary  War. 

Colonial  Coinage. — The  people  of  the  colonies,  in  their 
early  days,  employed  various  substitutes  for  money.  Wam 
pum  (the  circulating  medium  of  the  Indians)  was  used,1 
also  furs  and  cotton  cloth.  Corn  and  bullets  at  times 
served  for  money,  and  in  Virginia  tobacco  long  did  the  duty 
of  coin,  passing  as  money  according  to  its  market  value. 

1  The  Dutch,  finding  that  the  Indians  would  receive  wampum  for 
furs,  made  it  themselves.  It  was  made  of  sea-shells  ruhbed  smooth, 
cut  into  pieces,  pierced  with  holes,  and  strung.  It  came  to  pass  as 
money  between  the  whites,. and  the  first  church  in  New  Jersey  is  said 
to  have  been  paid  for  by  contributions  of  wampum,  each  string  being 
worth  about  a  dollar. 


PROGRESS   OF   FINANCE. 


495 


A  mint  was  established  in  Boston  in  1652  which  issued 
silver  coins  of  several  values.     These  bore  various  devices, 
the  best  known  be 
ing  the  "  Pine-Tree" 
shilling.     Maryland 
in   1659    had    shil 
lings,  sixpences,  and 
pennies,   coined    in 
England     by    Lord 

Baltimore.      In  1722  PINE-TREE  SHILLING. 

Great  Britain  issued 

a  coinage  for  America,  the  coins  being  twopence,  pence,  and 

half-pence.     Several  of  the  States  issued  coins  during  the 

Revolution. 

Revolutionary  Finances.— The  Continental  Congress  was 
given  no  power  to  tax  the  States.  The  people  were  poor. 
They  had  lately  come  out  of  an  expensive  war,  carried  on 
by  the  aid  of  paper  money,  which  had  sunk  in  value.  Con 
gress  adopted  the  colonial  plan  of  issuing  paper  money,  but 
it  failed  to  demand  from  the  States  the  power  of  laying 

taxes  to  provide  for  the 
redemption  of  this  money, 
and  the  currency  soon 
began  to  sink  in  value. 

The  first  issue  was  for 
two  million  dollars,  the 
second  for  one  million 
dollars,  the  third  for  three 
million  dollars.  More 
MONEY.  was  soon  needed,  and 

more  was  issued,  until  the 

total  grew  very  large  for  so  poor  a  country.     The  mistake 
was  made  of  supposing  that  the  war  would  be  very  short. 


t&  Bearer  ttreceM 
TWENTY  S 

ED  DOLLARS 

tr<&  Arafa 

Gold  or  Sihrer, 
to  a. 


496     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

As  the  war  went  on  the  financial  difficulty  grew  great.  A 
Confederation  was  formed,  but  it  left  Congress  without  the 
power  of  laying  taxes,  and  the  States  contributed  very  little 
toward  its  support.  In  the  later  years  of  the  war  some 
money  was  borrowed  from  France,  Holland,  and  Spain, 
and  some  loans  were  obtained  from  the  people.  But  the 
paper-mill  continued  the  chief  resource,  and  in  the  end  the 
currency  became  almost  worthless. 

Later  Finances. — At  the  end  of  the  Revolution  the  coun 
try  was  deeply  in  debt  and  the  government  destitute  of 
credit.  There  was  abundance  of  paper  money,  but  no  one 
would  take  it  for  goods.  In  1781,  Robert  Morris,  who  had 
lent  much  to  the  government  during  the  war,  was  made 
Superintendent  of  Finance.  He  established  at  Philadelphia 
the  Bank  of  North  America,  the  oldest  bank  in  this  country. 
By  its  aid,  by  that  of  his  own  means  and  credit,  and  by 
some  foreign  loans,  he  partly  relieved  the  strain.  But  Con 
gress  continued  without  power,  the  States  gave  it  very  little 
help,  claims  remained  unpaid,  and  the  country  was  in  a 
bankrupt  condition.  Even  Robert  Morris  was  not  repaid 
the  money  he  had  advanced,  and  the  ungrateful  country 
permitted  its  benefactor  to  go  to  prison  for  debt. 

Hamilton's  Methods. — The  new  Constitution  changed 
the  situation  by  giving  Congress  the  power  of  taxation. 
Alexander  Hamilton  was  made  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
He  found  the  debt  of  the  country  to  be  over  seventy-five 
million  dollars,  a  heavy  burden  for  the  United  States  at  that 
time ;  but  by  his  wise  methods  the  burden  was  soon  lifted. 
He  persuaded  Congress  to  assume  the  debt  of  the  States, 
and  undertook  to  pay  the  whole  debt,  including  the  de 
preciated  Continental  currency.  For  this  purpose  he  had  a 
tax  laid  on  imported  goods  and  on  distilled  spirits.  A  mint 
and  a  national  bank  were  established  at  Philadelphia.  The 


PROGRESS  OF  FINANCE.  497 

whole  debt  was  made  a  government  fund,  at  interest,  and  a 
sinking  fund  was  founded  for  its  gradual  payment.  These 
measures  restored  the  credit  of  the  government. 

Progress  of  the  Debt. — Now  that  the  people  were  re 
ceiving  interest  on  their  claims,  and  could  sell  them  or 
pass  them  off  in  trade,  their  payment  was  not  demanded. 
For  ten  years  the  debt  was  not  reduced,  there  being 
heavy  expenses  from  the  Indian  wars  and  the  naval  war 
with  France.  After  1801  the  debt  began  to  decrease.  In 
that  year  the  internal  revenue  taxes  were  abolished,  and 
the  government  afterward  depended  on  import  duties 
alone. 

In  1812,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  second  war  with  Great 
Britain,  the  debt  was  forty-five  million  dollars.  To  pay  the 
expenses  of  this  war  loans  were  made  amounting  to  over 
eighty  million  dollars  ;  but  so  great  were  the  discounts  and 
depreciation  that  the  government  received  only  thirty-four 
million  dollars  from  these  loans.  A  new  charter  had  been 
refused  to  the  United  States  Bank,  and  the  notes  of  the 
State  banks,  which  succeeded  it,  sank  greatly  in  value.  In 
1816  the  public  debt  was  over  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  million  dollars. 

Gallatin,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  demanded  an  internal 
revenue  tax  and  a  restoration  of  the  United  States  Bank. 
After  much  opposition  in  Congress  he  finally  obtained  both. 
In  1817  the  internal  taxes  were  again  taken  off,  and  from 
that  time  until  1861  the  government  depended  on  import 
duties  for  its  revenue. 

The  Debt  Paid. — Twenty  years  afterward  (1836)  the 
United  States  found  itself  out  of  debt,  and  with  a  large  sum 
of  money  on  hand.  Part  of  this  came  from  the  tariff  duties, 
part  from  the  sale  of  public  lands.  Congress  decreed  that 
this  surplus,  less  five  million  dollars  retained,  should  be 

32 


498     STAGES  OF  PROGRESS   IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

divided  among  the  States  in  proportion  to  their  population. 
The  sum  to  be  divided  was  over  thirty-seven  million  dollars. 
But  after  three-fourths  of  it  had  been  paid,  the  financial 
panic  of  1837  came  on,  and  the  country  found  itself  on  the 
verge  of  bankruptcy. 

Causes  of  the  Trouble. — -President  Jackson  had  vetoed 
the  bill  to  renew  the  charter  of  the  United  States  Bank,  and 
removed  the  public  money  from  its  vaults.  This  money 
was  deposited  in  State  banks,  and  was  freely  loaned  to 
speculators.  A  panic  followed,  many  of  the  State  banks 
failed,  the  public  money  was  lost,  and  the  government 
became  unable  to  pay  its  debts. 

Treasury  notes,  or  government  paper  money,  which  had 
been  issued  during  the  war  of  1812,  were  again  issued, 
money  was  borrowed,  and  the  difficulty  was  thus  got  over. 
Subsequently  what  is  known  as  the  Sub-Treasury  plan  was 
adopted,  the  public  money  being  kept  in  the  United  States 
Treasury  building  at  Washington  and  in  sub-treasuries  in 
the  principal  cities.  This  method  is  still  in  use.  It  has  the 
disadvantage  of  withdrawing  large  sums  of  money  from 
circulation,  and  thus  reducing  the  amount  of  currency  in 
the  hands  of  the  people. 

The  Civil  War  Period. — When  the  Civil  War  began  the 
public  debt  was  about  sixty  million  dollars.  It  increased 
with  great  rapidity,  money  being  freely  borrowed.  .To 
meet  the  expense  the  tariff  was  increased,  taxes  were  laid 
on  many  articles,  and  a  tax  was  laid  on  the  incomes  of  the 
people.  Treasury  notes  were  issued  in  abundance.  The 
loans  authorized  reached  the  high  total  of  $2,600,000,000. 
On  the  1st  of  September,  1865,  the  debt  of  the  United 
States  was  $2,756,431,751.  The  Confederate  States  had 
also  a  large  debt,  principally  in  the  form  of  paper  money, 
which  had  lost  all  its  value  through  depreciation. 


PROGRESS   OF  FINANCE.  499 

Paying  the  Debt. — Since  that  date  the  country  has  been 
occupied  in  paying  its  enormous  debt.  Its  paper  money 
had  greatly  depreciated  in  value,  at  one  time  a  dollar  in 
gold  being  worth  nearly  three  dollars  in  paper.  For  years 
the  business  of  the  country  was  conducted  on  the  paper 
money  of  the  government,  and  that  issued  by  the  national 
banks  which  the  government  had  established  during  the 
war.  The  money  of  these  banks  was  not  like  that  of  the 
old  State  banks.  They  bought  government  securities  and 
deposited  them  in  the  United  States  Treasury,  so  that  the 
government  became  responsible  for  their  bank-notes.  The 
credit  of  the  country  grew,  till  its  paper  became  as  valu 
able  as  gold,  and  on  January  1,  1879,  specie  payments 
were  resumed,  the  government  being  now  able  to  redeem 
its  paper  in  gold  and  silver  coin.  Since  the  close  of  the 
war  the  debt  has  been  enormously  reduced,  more  than 
$1,600,000,000  having  been  paid.  In  addition  nearly  all 
the  internal  revenue  taxes  have  been  taken  off,  and  the 
rate  of  interest  has  been  reduced  to  about  half  what  it 
was  in  war  times.  No  other  country  in  the  world  has  ever- 
shown  so  great  a  progress  in  the  paying  of  a  great  war  debt, 
and  each  of  the  great  countries  of  Europe,  except  Germany, 
has  now  a  much  larger  debt  than  this  country. 

United  States  Coinage. — The  decimal  system  of  United 
States  coins  was  suggested  by  Robert  Morris,  shortly  after 
the  Revolution.  Jefferson  suggested  that  the  dollar  should 
be  the  monetary  unit.  There  was  no  coinage  (except 
some  copper  coins)  until  after  the  establishment  of  the 
United  States  Mint  in  1791,  the  first  coins  being  issued  in 
1792. 

The  total  United  States  coinage  to  the  end  of  the  fiscal 
year  of  1901  was  :  Gold  coins,  $2,266,153,828  ;  silver  coins, 
$831,436,658  ;  copper,  bronze,  and  nickel  coins,  $35,513,537. 


500     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN   THE  UNITED   STATES. 

Silver  Coinage. — The  recent  great  interest  in  silver  coin 
age  calls  for  some  special  statement  on  this  subject.  The 
coinage  of  silver  dollars  was  authorized  April  2,  1792,  and 
began  in  1794,  at  the  ratio  of  fifteen  ounces  ofsilver  to  one 
of  gold.  The  coinage  was  to  be  free  and  unlimited  and  the 
dollars  to  be  legal  tender  for  all  debts.  In  1834  an  act  of 
Congress  was  passed  to  reduce  the  weight  of  gold  coins. 
This  made  the  ratio  16.002  to  1.  In  1837  the  ratio  was 
again  changed,  and  was  made  15.988  to  1.  This  ratio  still 
holds  good.  It  is  usually  called  16  to  1.  The  gold  dollar 
contains  23.22  grains  of  pure  gold  ;  the  silver  dollar  371.25 
grains  of  pure  silver.  Each  is  alloyed  with  ten  per  cent,  of 
copper,  so  that  each  is  nine-tenths  pure  metal  and  one-tenth 
copper. 

In  1873  the  coinage  of  silver  dollars  was  discontinued. 
The  silver  dollar  was  then  worth  more  than  a  gold  dollar, 
and  none  had  been  in  circulation  for  years.  Up  to  that 
time  the  total  coinage  of  silver  dollars  had  been  $8,045,838. 
In  1878  the  coinage  of  silver  dollars  was  resumed,  under 
a  law  which  said  that  not  less  than  two  million  or  more 
than  four  million  dollars1  worth  of  bullion  should  be  pur 
chased  monthly.  They  were  to  be  legal  tender  for  all 
debts  unless  otherwise  stipulated.  The  Sherman  Silver 
Bill,  passed  in  1890,  required  the  purchase  of  not  less  than 
four  million  dollars  in  silver  bullion  monthly.  This  bill 
was  repealed  in  1893,  and  since  then  no  silver  has  been 
purchased.  Up  to  that  date  the  total  coinage  of  standard 
silver  dollars  had  been  over  four  hundred  and  thirty-one 
million  dollars.  Meanwhile,  the  mercantile  value  of  silver 
had  fallen  until  the  bullion  value  of  a  dollar  was  little  more 
than  fifty  cents.  In  1900  Congress  passed  a  law  making 
gold  the  sole  standard  of  value  in  this  country,  the  gold 
dollar  being  made  the  monetary  unit. 


POPULATION  AND   IMMIGRATION.  501 

6.  POPULATION  AND  IMMIGRATION. 

The  Original  Colonists. — The  territory  of  the  United 
States  was  settled  by  people  from  five  nations  of  Europe, 
Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  Holland,  and  Sweden.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  colonists  were  English.  Of  the  original 
colonists,  aside  from  the  English,  only  the  French  of  Louis 
iana  and  Canada  and  the  Dutch  of  New  York  have  left  any 
distinct  traces. 

Later  Immigrants. — Subsequently  to  the  original  settle 
ments,  immigrants  came  from  various  countries  of  Europe. 
There  was  a  considerable  immigration  of  Scotch-Irish,1 
several  hundred  of  whom  settled  at  Londonderry,  New 
Hampshire,  and  others  in  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.  Many 
came  to  Pennsylvania,  five  thousand  arriving  in  Philadel 
phia  in  1729.  They  formed  a  very  thrifty  and  useful  portion 
of  the  population. 

Another  very  desirable  class  of  immigrants  were  the 
French  Huguenots,  who  settled  in  every  colony,  but  mostly 
in  the  Carolinas.  They  brought  with  them  the  mulberry 
and  olive  and  introduced  many  choice  varieties  of  pears. 
Germany  also  sent  large  numbers  of  useful  immigrants, 
driven  from  their  country,  like  those  already  named,  by  re 
ligious  persecution.  Thirteen  thousand  Germans  from  the 
Palatinate  were  sent  over  in  Queen  Anne's  time,  four  thou 
sand  of  them  going  to  New  York,  others  to  the  South.  To 
Georgia  came  Moravians  from  Austria,  fleeing  from  perse 
cution,  German  Lutherans,  and  Highland  Scotch. 

The  Pennsylvania  Dutch. — Among  the  most  persistent 
in  their  characteristics  of  the  non-English  settlers  have  been 

1  Presbyterians  from  Scotland  who  had  settled  in  the  north  of 
Ireland. 


502     STAGES   OF  PROGRESS   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

those  known  as  the  "  Pennsylvania  Dutch,"  though  really 
of  German  descent.  In  1776  the  population  of  Pennsylva 
nia  was  only  about  one-half  English.  One-third  was  Ger 
man  and  the  rest  Swedish  and  Irish.  The  Germans  remain 
a  distinct  element  of  the  population,  still  speaking  a  lan 
guage  known  as  Pennsylvania  Dutch,  but  really  the  provin 
cial  German  of  the  past  century,  with  many  changes  in 
dialect.  They  are  industrious  farmers,  very  conservative 
in  character  and  habits. 

The  Dutch  of  New  York  have  been  also  persistent  in 
character,  and  a  number  of  customs,  now  wide-spread  in 
the  country,  were  introduced  by  them. 

The  Negroes  and  Indians. — The  negroes,  who  came  here 
as  slaves,  but  are  now  all  free,  constitute  a  strongly  marked 
and  numerous  element  of  the  population.  The  remnant  of 
the  Indian  population,  now  settled  in  communities  and  on 
reservations,  are  also  strongly  marked  in  their  characteris 
tics,  though  they  may  in  time  be  absorbed  by  the  whites. 

A  Mixed  Population. — These  various  early  elements, 
with  the  still  more  varied  immigrants  who  have  sought  this 
country  within  the  present  century,  make  up  a  population 
of  an  unusual  variety  of  origin.  Yet  it  has  largely  amal 
gamated,  and  may  eventually  combine  into  a  single  new 
type  of  man.  What  that  type  will  be  it  is  yet  too  early 
to  say. 

Numbers  of  the  Population. — Just  how  many  people 
were  in  this  country  at  various  colonial  periods  we  do 
not  know.  It  is  believed  that  in  1689  there  were  about 
200,000  ;  in  1750,  about  1,100,000  ;  in  1763,  about  1,800,000  ; 
and  in  1776,  about  2,500,000.  In  1790  the  first  census  gave 
a  population  of  3,929,214.  Since  then  the  population  has 
doubled,  on  the  average,  every  twenty-five  years,  and  in 
1900  was  76,303,387. 


POPULATION  AND  IMMIGRATION.  503 

States  and  Cities. — In  1776  Virginia  had  the  largest  pop 
ulation, — about  five  hundred  thousand.  Pennsylvania  had 
about  four  hundred  thousand,  and  Massachusetts  about 
three  hundred  thousand.  Connecticut,  New  York,  Mary 
land,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina  had  about  two 
hundred  thousand  each,  and  the  other  colonies  each  less 
than  one  hundred  thousand. 

Of  the  cities,  Philadelphia,  the  largest,  had  in  1790  a  pop 
ulation  of  42,520;  New  York,  33,131;  Boston,  18,038; 
Charleston,  16,359;  and  Baltimore,  13,503.  Of  inland 
towns,  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  was  the  largest,  with  some 
thing  over  six  thousand  inhabitants.  There  were  only  five 
cities  with  over  ten  thousand  population.  In  1900  there 
were  four  hundred  and  twenty-three. 

Location  of  the  People. — In  1790  nearly  all  the  Amer 
ican  people  lived  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  few  having 
gone  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  westward. 
The  centre  of  population  was  then  about  twenty-three  miles 
east  of  Baltimore.  Since  then  this  centre  has  moved  stead 
ily  westward,  keeping  nearly  on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude 
(39°),  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  miles  every  ten  years.  In 
1890  it  had  reached  a  point  near  Greensburg,  in  southeast 
ern  Indiana.  It  may  be  further  said  that  there  has  been  a 
steady  tendency  toward  increase  of  city  life.  In  1790  only 
three  out  of  each  one  hundred  people  lived  in  cities.  In 
1840  this  had  increased  to  nine,  and  in  1890  to  twenty-nine 
per  one  hundred. 

The  Movement  "Westward. — After  the  Revolution  an 
active  movement  westward  set  in,  and  soon  towns  arose 
west  of  the  Alleghanies.  Settlements  were  made  in  Ken 
tucky  and  Tennessee  at  an  earlier  date.  The  first  settle 
ment  in  Ohio  was  at  Marietta,  in  1788.  In  the  same  year 
was  founded  a  village,  which  in  1790  was  named  Cin- 


504     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

cinnati.  In  1803,  St.  Louis  was  a  little  village  of  log  cabins, 
containing  about  eight  hundred  people.  On  the  lakes  De 
troit  had  been  settled  early  by  the  French.  In  1831  a  dozen 
settlers  had  built  their  cabins  around  Fort  Dearborn,  on 
Lake  Michigan.  In  1833  this  was  a  town  of  five  hundred 
to  six  hundred  people,  and  took  the  name  of  Chicago. 
To-day  it  is  a  city  of  more  than  a  million  inhabitants.  Many 
like  stories  might  be  told  of  the  marvellous  rapidity  with 


AN  EMIGRANT  TRAIN. 

which  the  enterprising  American  people  have  settled  the 
great  West,  pushing  their  way  in  much  less  than  a  century 
to  the  Pacific,  and  occupying  all  the  habitable  territory  be 
tween.  In  the  history  of  mankind  there  is  nothing  that 
bears  comparison  with  it. 

Routes  of  Travel.— The  Ohio  formed  a  ready  channel 
of  movement  westward  from  the  Middle  States,  bold  navi 
gators  daring  in  rude  craft  the  arrows  and  bullets  of  am 
bushed  warriors.  In  the  South  hardy  pioneers  made  their 


POPULATION  AND   IMMIGRATION.  505 

way  over  the  difficult  barrier  of  the  mountains.  In  the 
North  they  pushed  westward  through  the  forests,  driving 
before  them  a  frontier  of  hostile  savages  as  they  went. 

The  National  Road. — The  first  great  national  road  was 
begun  at  Cumberland,  Maryland,  on  the  Potomac,  and  grad 
ually  extended  across  the  mountains  to  Wheeling,  Virginia 
(now  West  Virginia),  on  the  Ohio.  During  the  Monroe  ad 
ministration  this  was  extended  into  Ohio,  and  eventually 
it  was  carried  by  the  State  governments  to  the  Mississippi. 
It  was  a  broad  and  solid  avenue,  the  first  great  work  of 
road-making  in  the  United  States.  Along  it  moved  a  con 
stant  stream  of  emigrant  wagons,  often  so  close  as  to  form 
a  continuous  line.  Day  by  day,  year  by  year,  they  moved 
onward,  while  the  great  West  gradually  filled  up  with  the 
grand  army  of  thrift  and  enterprise. 

This  road  has  long  since  been  superseded  by  the  vast  net 
work  of  railroad  lines,  and  the  slow-moving  flat-boat  has 
yielded  to  the  rapid  steamboat.  By  their  aid  the  progress 
of  settlement  has  been  greatly  intensified,  and  the  hardships 
of  emigration  have  almost  disappeared  through  the  replace 
ment  of  the  lumbering  emigrant  wagon  by  the  iron  horse 
and  its  swift-moving  train. 

Immigration. — While  the  older  population  of  this  country 
has  been  flowing  in  a  steady  stream  westward,  new  settlers 
have  been  pouring  into  the  country  eastward.  Immigration 
has  been  more  or  less  continuous  since  the  date  of  the  origi 
nal  settlements,  but  toward  the  middle  of  the  present  cen 
tury  it  began  to  grow  very  large,  an  earnest  desire  spring 
ing  up  among  the  poverty-stricken  and  oppressed  laboring 
people  of  Europe  to  enjoy  the  freedom  and  plenty  of  this 
prosperous  country.  A  line  of  steamships  began  to  cross 
the  ocean  in  1840 ;  others  followed ;  immigrants  poured  in 
at  the  rate  of  three  thousand  per  week ;  and  in  the  decade 


506     STAGES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

between  1840  and  1850  nearly  two  million  people  were 
thus  added  to  our  population.  This  was  almost  twice  as 
many  as  had  arrived  between  1800  and  1840.  They  were 
largely  Irish,  their  great  migration  being  due  to  the  famine 
of  1845-46.  Germany  sent  almost  as  many,  while  few  came 
from  other  countries. 

Change  in  Character  of  Immigration. — Until  and  for 
some  time  after  the  Civil  War  the  immigrants  were  generally 
desirable  in  character,  and  readily  assimilated  with  the  peo 
ple.  Since  then  there  has  been  a  change.  The  numbers 
of  immigrants  have  enormously  increased  and  they  have 
become  lower  in  grade.  Formerly  they  were  mainly  from 
Great  Britain  and  the  Teutonic  countries.  Now  they  are 
largely  from  Italy  and  Eastern  Europe.  Formerly  they 
were  from  the  better  classes  of  farmers  and  artisans.  Now 
they  are  largely  from  the  most  ignorant  and  untrained  class 
of  laborers.  Numbers  of  paupers,  criminals,  and  others  of 
the  lowest  class  of  Europe  have  been  sent  to  this  country, 
and  a  strong  feeling  of  objection  to  such  immigrants  has 
grown  up.  The  total  immigration  to  this  country  since  1790 
has  been  about  twenty  millions.  Of  these,  more  than  five 
millions  came  in  the  ten  years  from  1880  to  1890,  and 
nearly  four  millions  in  the  succeeding  decade. 

The  Chinese. — Chinese  immigration  to  this  country  began 
about  1850.  It  increased  rapidly  after  1880,  more  than  one 
hundred  thousand  landing  in  a  few  years.  They  worked 
for  very  low  wages,  thus  disturbing  the  industrial  conditions 
of  the  country.  They  brought  no  families,  their  purpose 
being  to  get  what  they  could  out  of  the  country  and  then 
return  home  to  enjoy  it.  It  began  to  appear  as  if  America 
would  be  flooded  from  the  lowest  class  of  Chinese  laborers, 
who  could  not  assimilate  with  our  people  and  might  in  time 
lower  the  grade  of  our  civilization.  Consequently  a  law  was 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  POSTAL  FACILITIES.         507 

passed  forbidding  their  immigration.     Their  numbers  are 
now  steadily  decreasing,  as  many  go  home  and  few  return. 

Other  Restrictive  Laws. — Congress  has  passed  laws  to 
prevent  the  immigration  of  paupers  and  criminals,  of  those 
brought  here  under  contracts  to  perform  certain  labor,  and 
in  general  of  all  not  able  to  pay  their  own  way  and  without 
means  to  begin  life  in  this  country.  Yet  these  laws  have 
not  proved  sufficient.  Undesirable  immigrants  still  reach 
our  shores  in  large  numbers,  and  more  stringent  laws  are 
demanded.  It  is  now  considered  desirable  to  keep  out  all 
people  who  cannot  read  and  write  and  all  who  do  not  intend 
to  become  permanent  citizens  of  the  United  States,  since 
numbers  come  here  for  a  season's  labor  and  then  return 
home  ;  also  all  Anarchists.  Laws  to  this  effect  will  be  very 
useful,  by  restricting  immigration  to  a  better  class. 


7.  TRANSPORTATION    AND   POSTAL   FACILITIES. 

Early  Travel. — The  facilities  for  travel  in  colonial  times 
were  small,  and  few  people  left  their  homes.  Most  of  the 
travel  took  place  by  boats  on  navigable  streams  and  vessels 
along  the  seaboard,  land  travel  being  very  slow  and  attended 
with  many  hardships.  Inland  travel  was  mainly  performed 
on  foot  through  the  forest,  or  on  foot  or  horseback  over 
rude  and  primitive  roads.  As  the  roads  grew  better  some 
carriages  appeared,  but  travel  continued  chiefly  on  horse 
back  or  by  boat.  Very  little  took  place,  and  even  in  Phila 
delphia,  the  largest  city,  a  stranger  in  the  streets  was  looked 
at  with  curiosity. 

Dr.  Franklin's  Journey. — An  interesting  example  of  this 
is  given  by  Dr.  Franklin,  in  his  story  of  how  he  came  from 
New  York  to  Philadelphia  in  1723.  Part  of  this  journey 
was  made  with  great  difficulty  by  boat  from  New  York  to 


508     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN   THE  UNITED   STATES. 

Amboy,  and  part  by  boat  down  the  Delaware.  Across  New 
Jersey  he  went  on  foot,  the  whole  journey  taking  five  or  six 
days.  By  coasting  vessels,  with  favorable  winds,  this  dis 
tance  could  be  traversed  in  three  days. 

Lack  of  Roads. — Franklin  found  roads,  but  through 
most  of  the  country  nothing  better  existed  than  Indian 
trails  and  bridle-paths.  Such  goods  as  needed  to  be  trans 
ported  were  carried  on  pack-horses.  In  1753,  Washington 
travelled  five  hundred  and  sixty  miles  through  the  wilder 
ness,  the  journey  occupying  forty- two  days.  It  could  now 
be  performed  in  less  than  a  day.  No  wheeled  carriages 
were  used  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
few  until  after  the  Revolution.  Those  who  could  not 
afford  a  horse  went  on  foot. 

Military  Roads. — Braddock,  on  his  march  toward  Fort 
Duquesne,  made  a  road  as  he  went.  Subsequently  Gen 
eral  Forbes,  on  a  similar  march,  spent  so  much  time  in 
road-building  as  almost  to  defeat  the  object  of  the  enter 
prise.  Washington  accomplished  it  by  making  a  rapid 
advance  to  Fort  Duquesne  through  the  woods.  Franklin 
came  to  Braddock's  aid  by  providing  for  him  a  number  of 
the  famous  Conestoga  wagons  of  Pennsylvania.  These 
were  large,  canvas-covered  wagons  used  by  the  farmers 
and  traders  of  that  State  to  transport  their  produce  to 
Philadelphia.  They  were  each  drawn  by  six  or  eight 
horses.  At  one  time  as  many  as  ten  thousand  traversed 
the  roads  leading  to  that  city. 

Stage  Travel. — It  was  late  in  the  eighteenth  century 
before  a  stage-coach  line  was  started  between  Philadelphia 
and  New  York,  the  two  largest  cities  in  the  country.  At 
first  a  wagon  running  twice  a  week  sufficed  for  all  the  travel. 
The  roads  were  bad  and  the  travel  slow,  about  three  miles 
an  hour  being  the  average  time.  In  1766  coaches  were  put 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   POSTAL  FACILITIES. 


509 


on  that  made  the  journey  in  two  days.     They  were  adver 
tised  as  "  flying   machines.1'     In  wet  seasons  the  wagons 
often    stuck    in    the 
mud,  and  had  to  be 
pulled  out  with  the 
aid  of  the  passengers. 
The     first     stage 
route  was  from  Prov 
idence     to     Boston. 
The     journey     took 

two   days.      In    1789  THE  CONESTOGA  WAGON. 

it   took    a   week   to 

travel  from  Boston  to  New  York  by  stage.     There  were  no 
bridges,  and  all  large  rivers  had  to  be  crossed  in  boats.     In 

cold  weather  the  journey 
was  a  terrible  one. 

Brie  Canal. — After 
1800  active  efforts  began 
for  improvement  in  means 
of  transportation.  Con 
gress  considered  the  im 
portance  of  lending  gov 
ernment  aid  to  the  build 
ing  of  roads  and  canals, 
and  the  State  of  New 
York  undertook  to  build 
the  great  Erie  Canal  from 
Albany  to  Buffalo,  a  dis 
tance  of  three  hundred 
and  sixty-three  miles.  This  grand  enterprise,  carried  across 
what  was  mainly  a  wilderness,  took  eight  years  for  its  ac 
complishment.  It  was  completed  in  1825.  Its  effects  were 
very  important.  Before  it  was  built  it  took  three  weeks 


FULTON'S  STEAMBOAT.    (The  Clermont.) 


510     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

and  cost  ten  dollars  to  carry  a  barrel  of  flour  from  Buffalo 
to  Albany.  By  the  use  of  the  canal  this  could  be  done  in 
a  week  at  a  cost  of  thirty  cents. 

The  Steamboat. — The  development  of  steam  as  a  source 
of  power  led  to  many  experiments  in  the  moving  of  boats 
and  carriages  by  steam.  John  Fitch  succeeded  in  moving 
boats  by  steam  before  1790,  but  Robert  Fulton  was  the  first 
to  attract  public  attention  in  this  direction.  His  boat,  the 
Clermont,  placed  on  the  Hudson  in  1807,  took  thirty-two 
hours  to  pass  from  New  York  to  Albany. 


SB 


. 


THE  OCEAN  STEAMER  OP  TO-DAY. 


This  invention  made  a  great  change  in  modes  of  travel, 
the  steamboat  being  soon  widely  adopted.  The  first  boat 
was  put  on  the  Ohio  in  1811,  but  in  a  few  years  many 
boats  were  traversing  the  Western  rivers,  adding  greatly  to 
the  westward  movement  of  emigration.  These  were  rude 
paddle-wheel  boats.  Subsequently  John  Ericsson  invented 
the  screw-propeller,  which  added  greatly  to  the  power  of 
steamboat  propulsion. 

Steamships. — It  was  soon  deemed  possible  to  cross  the 
ocean  by  the  aid  of  steam,  and  in  1819  the  Savannah,  pro- 


TRANSPORTATION  AND   POSTAL  FACILITIES.         511 

pelled  partly  by  wind  and  partly  by  steam,  crossed  the 
Atlantic  from  Savannah,  Georgia,  to  Liverpool.  Vessels 
moved  by  steam  alone  followed,  and  in  1838  two  English 
steamships  entered  the  harbor  of  New  York.  In  1840  the 
Cunard  Line  of  steamships  was  established  between  Liver 
pool  and  Boston.  Soon  after  a  line  was  opened  to  New 
York.  These  were  the  vanguards  of  the  vast  fleet  of  steam 
ships  which  now  sail  from  our  ports  to  all  quarters  of  the 
globe.  The  first  steam-vessels  were  rude  affairs  as  com 
pared  with  the  "  floating  palaces"  which  now  make  ocean 
travel  a  luxury. 

The  Railroad. — While  Robert  Fulton  was  experiment 
ing  with  his  steamboat  on  the  Hudson,  Oliver  Evans  was 
experimenting  with  the  steam-carriage  in  the  streets  of 
Philadelphia.  The  railroad  was  invented  in  England,  and 
was  first  used  for  horse  traffic.  George  Stephenson  was  the 
first  to  invent  a  practical  steam-carriage  to  run  on  iron 
rails. 

The  railroad  soon  reached  this  country,  the  first  one, 
completed  in  1826,  being  a  few  miles  long  and  used  with 
horses.  The  first  railroad  intended  for  passengers  was 
begun  in  1828.  It  ran  from  Baltimore  westward,  and 
forms  part  of  the  present  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad.  It 
was  at  first  worked  with  horses.  The  first  American  loco 
motive  was  built  at  Baltimore  by  Peter  Cooper  (founder  of 
the  noble  Cooper  Institute  of  New  York).  The  road  was 
then  thirteen  miles  long  and  the  distance  was  accomplished 
in  something  less  than  an  hour.  A  fine  horse  belonging  to 
a  Baltimore  stage-coach  line  raced  the  locomotive  on  its 
return,  but  the  wheezing  little  machine  won  the  victory. 
That  indicated  the  end  of  the  stage-coach  age. 

Growth  of  the  Railroad  System. — In  1830  there  were 
in  all  twenty-three  miles  of  railroad  in  the  United  States. 


512     STAGES   OF  PROGRESS   IN  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

In  1840  there  were  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eigh 
teen  miles,  and  the  length  doubled  every  five  years  for 

twenty  years. 
There  are  at 
present  about 
one  hundred 

THE  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  TO-DAY.  and  ninety  thoU' 

sand  miles,  with 

more  than  thirty-six  thousand  engines  and  one  million  two 
hundred  thousand  cars,  while  the  capital  invested  aggre 
gates  over  five  billion  dollars.  To-day  the  continent  can  be 
crossed  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  in  five  days,  three 
thousand  miles  being  traversed  in  the  time  it  took  to  go 
two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  by  stage-coach  travel.  The 
teas,  silks,  and  spices  of  Asia,  which  formerly  took  five  or 
six  months  to  reach  us,  now  do  so  in  a  month,  while  vast 
quantities  of  the  products  of  our  own  country  are  daily 
transported  over  the  rails. 

The  Express  System. — The  express  system  of  this  coun 
try  was  initiated  in  1839  by  a  man  named  Harnden,  who 
began  by  carrying  articles  in  a  small  hand-bag.  Now  the 
business  is  immense  in  scope,  thousands  of  railroad  cars 
being  used  in  its  service. 

The  Telegraph. — While  men's  bodies  were  being  carried 
at  such  speed,  efforts  were  being  made  to  carry  their  thoughts 
with  much  greater  speed.  Mechanical  methods  of  telegraphy 
had  long  been  used,  but  it  was  not  until  after  1830  that  ex 
periments  in  electric  telegraphy  began  to  be  made.  The 
first  electric  telegraph  in  this  country,  the  invention  of  Pro 
fessor  Morse,  was  completed  from  Baltimore  to  Washington 
in  1844,  the  first  business  message  sent  being  the  news  of 
Folk's  nomination  to  the  Presidency  by  the  convention  at 
Baltimore.  At  present  there  are  more  than  one  hundred 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   POSTAL   FACILITIES.          513 

and  ninety  thousand  miles  of  line  and  over  nine  hundred 
thousand  miles  of  wire  in  this  country,  and  thousands  of 
miles  under  the  ocean,  extending  to  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Messages  can  also  now  be  sent  for  long  distances  without 
the  use  of  wires.  This,  one  of  the  most  wonderful  of  modern 
inventions,  is  known  as  wireless  telegraphy. 

The  Telephone. — The  telephone — or  speaking  telegraph 
— was  first  exhibited  in  1876.  There  are  now  one  million 
four  hundred  thousand  miles  of  wire  in  use,  and  many  hun 
dred  thousands  of  people  daily  speak  to  each  other  over 
miles  of  distance. 

The  Street  Railway. — The  street  railway  has  made  sim 
ilarly  encouraging  progress.  Begun  about  forty  years  ago, 
and  run  until  recently  by  the  aid  of  horses,  these  have  been 
almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  aid  of  power  engines. 
The  first  cable-cars  ran  in  San  Francisco  in  1873.  The  first 
electric  railway  was  started  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1888. 
Now  many  thousands  of  miles  of  electric  trolley  roads  are 
in  use,  extending  from  the  cities  far  into  the  country,  and 
the  trolley  system  is  beginning  to  supersede  the  steam  loco 
motive. 

The  Bicycle  and  Horseless  Carriage. — The  bicycle  is 
one  of  the  great  inventions  of  the  age.  Vast  numbers  of 
them  are  now  in  use,  and  they  promise  to  make  a  revolution 
in  the  development  of  our  roads.  The  horseless  carriage, 
or  automobile, — moved  by  steam,  electric  or  other  motors, — 
is  an  invention  of  much  importance  which  has  come  widely 
into  use,  reducing  the  need  of  horses. 

Postal  Progress. — The  first  regular  mail  route  of  which 
we  know  in  this  country  was  started  in  1672  between  New 
York  and  Boston,  by  way  of  Hartford.  It  made  the  round 
trip  once  a  month.  In  1729  the  mail  between  Philadelphia 
and  New  York  was  carried  once  a  week  in  summer,  once  a 

33 


514     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


of  the  regular  mail. 


THE  PONY  EXPRESS. 


fortnight  in  winter.  The  mails  were  carried  by  men  on 
horseback,  their  saddle-bags  sufficing  for  all  the  letters 
sent.  In  remote  places  a  mail  was  sent  out  when  enough 
letters  had  collected  to  pay  the  cost  of  carriage.  The  old 
carrier  is  said  to  have  jogged  slowly  onward,  knitting  stock 
ings  to  pass  the  time.  Newspapers  did  not  then  make  part 
In  1753,  Benjamin  Franklin  was  ap 
pointed  postmaster-gen 
eral,  and  spent  five  weeks 
in  making  a  tour  of  the 
country  to  perfect  his 
plans.  The  service  was 
much  improved  under 
his  management. 

Postal  Service  in 
1790. —  In  1790  there 
were  seventy-five  post- 
offices  in  the  country,  and  five  mails  a  week  between  New 
York  and  Philadelphia.  It  took  two  days  for  a  letter  to 
go  this  distance.  The  mail  routes  were  then  eighteen 
hundred  and  seventy-five  miles  in  length,  and  about  two 
million  letters  were  carried  yearly.  They  are  now  over 
five  hundred  thousand  miles  long,  and  more  than  eight 
thousand  million  pieces  of  mail  matter  are  carried  yearly. 
There  are  more  than  seventy-seven  thousand  post-offices. 
The  cost  of  carrying  the  mails  is  much  over  $100,000,000. 

Rates  of  Postage. — In  1792  the  rates  of  postage  on  a 
single  letter-sheet  were  eight  cents  for  a  distance  under  forty 
miles,  ten  cents  under  ninety  miles,  and  so  on.  It  cost  sev 
enteen  cents  to  send  a  letter  from  New  York  to  Boston  and 
twenty-five  cents  to  send  one  to  Richmond.  Two  sheets 
were  charged  double.  In  1845  postage  was  reduced  to  five 
cents  per  half-ounce  for  distances  under  three  hundred 


INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS   AND   DEVELOPMENT.        515 

miles  ;  ten  cents  for  greater  distances.  In  1851  it  was  re 
duced  to  three  cents  for  distances  under  three  thousand 
miles  ;  six  cents  for  greater  distances.  In  1863  the  rate  was 
made  three  cents  for  all  distances.  In  1883  it  was  reduced 
to  two  cents  per  half-ounce,  and  in  1885  to  two  cents  per 
ounce.  In  addition  to  letters,  millions  of  newspapers  and 
books  now  pass  through  the  mails,  and  small  parcels  are 
carried  in  vast  numbers  at  low  rates. 


8.  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS  AND   DEVELOPMENT. 

Agriculture. — The  tillage  of  the  ground  was  the  industry 
to  which  the  Americans  most  largely  devoted  themselves  in 
colonial  times.  The  forests 
gradually  receded  before  the 
axes  of  the  pioneers,  and 
wider  tracts  of  land  were 
brought  under  cultivation, 
until  a  vast  area  of  former 
wilderness  was  converted 
into  fertile  farms.  The  grains 
and  fruits  of  Europe  were  in 
troduced  and  cultivated,  and 
certain  native  plants  proved 
of  high  utility.  Chief  among 
these  was  maize  or  Indian- 
corn,  whose  culture  has  extended  until  now  it  is  one  of  the 
leading  food-plants  of  the  world.  Its  product  in  this  coun 
try  far  surpasses  that  of  any  other  grain,  reaching  in  some 
years  the  enormous  aggregate  of  over  two  billion  bushels. 
The  potato  is  another  American  food-plant  whose  cultiva 
tion  has  spread  throughout  the  world,  and  which  forms  a 
great  portion  of  the  food  of  mankind. 


CUTTING  GRASS  WITH  THE  SCYTHE. 


516     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 


THRESHING  WITH  THE  FLAIL. 


Tobacco.— Tobacco,  found  first  by  Raleigh's  colonists  in 
1585  on  Roanoke  Island,  began  to  be  regularly  cultivated  in 

Virginia  in  1612.  Its  culture 
soon  became  the  great  industry 
of  that  colony.  In  1619  over 
forty  thousand  pounds  were 
shipped  abroad ;  in  1640  over 
one  million  five  hundred  thou 
sand  pounds.  At  present  over 
four  hundred  million  pounds  are 
annually  produced  in  this  coun 
try,  worth  more  than  twenty- 
seven  million  dollars.  Nearly 
one-half  of  this  is  grown  in  Ken 
tucky,  which  has  become  the 
great  tobacco-producing  State. 

The  commerce  of  America  be 
gan  with  tobacco.  The  demand  for  it  in  Europe  grew  rap 
idly,  new  ground  was  constantly  cleared  for  its  cultivation, 
and  the  plantation  system,  with  slave  labor,  was  introduced. 
At  one  time  it  was  planted  even  in  the  streets  of  Jamestown. 
It  served  as  money,  the  salaries  of  clergymen  and  public 
officers  were  paid  in  it,  and  until  the  Revolution  it  was 
almost  the  only  currency  of  Virginia. 

Wheat,  Rice,  Indigo,  and  Sugar. — Wheat,  introduced 
from  Europe,  was  largely  cultivated  in  New  York,  New  Jer 
sey,  and  Pennsylvania.  In  the  last-named  State  thousands 
of  Conestoga  wagons  were  used  to  bring  the  crop  to  Phila 
delphia.  To-day  wheat  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  agricul 
tural  products  of  the  country  and  a  leading  article  of  export. 
In  1693  rice  was  introduced  into  South  Carolina  by  a 
vessel  from  Madagascar.  It  grew  luxuriantly,  and  soon 
became  the  principal  product  of  the  State.  The  indigo  plant 


INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS   AND   DEVELOPMENT.       517 

was  introduced  in  1741,  and  was  so  developed  that  before 
the  Revolution  Charleston  exported  over  a  million  pounds 
a  year. 

Another  staple  of  considerable  importance  was  sugar. 
The  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  was  introduced  into  Lou 
isiana  about  1750,  but  did  not  become  important  until  after 
1800.  The  annual  product  of  sugar  in  this  country  is  now 
over  five  hundred  thousand  tons,  of  which  seventy-five 
thousand  are  produced  from  the  sugar-beet. 

Cotton. — Another  staple  of  Southern  agriculture,  cotton, 
developed  very  slowly,  from  the  difficulty  of  removing  the 
seeds  from  the  fibre.  After  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin, 
in  1793,  its  development  was  rapid,  and  this  country  is 
now  the  most  important  cotton-producing  country  in  the 
world.  The  yield  of  487,000  pounds  in  1793  had  increased 
to  38,118,000  pounds  in  1804.  In  some  recent  years  it 
has  been  more  than  eleven  million  bales,  averaging  487 
pounds  each. 

Other  Products. — The  agricultural  products  of  this  coun 
try  have  become  enormous  in  quantity  and  widely  varied  in 
character.  An  interesting  feature  is  the  great  production 
of  tropical  fruits,  the  orange  being  raised  in  vast  quantities 
in  Florida  and  California,  while  lemons,  raisins,  and  other 
tropical  products  are  largely  produced.  The  total  value  of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  in  1889,  as  given  in  the 
census  of  1890,  was  $2,460,107,454. 

Animals. — None  of  the  farm  animals  of  Europe  were 
found  in  this  country,  neither  the  horse,  the  ox,  the  pig,  nor 
the  sheep.  These  were  all  introduced  by  the  early  settlers, 
but  have  very  largely  increased.  The  total  value  of  these 
animals  in  the  United  States  is  now  more  than  two  billion 
dollars,  nearly  equalling  all  other  farm  products.  The  only 
animal  suitable  for  domestication  found  here  was  the  bison, 


518      STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

or  buffalo,  as  it  is  commonly  called.  These  were  found  in 
myriads,  but  no  attempt  was  made  to  domesticate  them, 
and  they  have  been  wantonly  destroyed  until  only  a  few 
hundreds  remain. 

Similarly  all  the  birds  of  the  farm,  except  the  turkey,  were 
introduced  from  Europe.  Thus  while  America  gave  several 
highly  useful  plants  to  the  world,  it  has  given  but  one  do 
mesticated  animal,  the  turkey. 

Agricultural  Implements.— Farming  in  former  centuries 
was  a  very  laborious  occupation.  None  of  the  labor-saving 

machines  now  in  use  were  then 
known,  and  the  severest  hand 
labor  was  necessary.  Grass  was 
cut  with  the  scythe,  grain  with 
the  sickle,  and  threshing  was 
done  on  the  barn  floor  with  the 
flail,  or  the  grain  was  trodden 
out  by  the  feet  of  animals.  The 
plough  in  use  was  a  rude  affair,  with  iron  plates  roughly  fas 
tened  on  the  mould-board. 

Results  of  Invention. — All  this  has  been  overcome  by 
the  inventive  genius  of  our  people.     Reaping,  mowing,  and 
harvesting    ma 
chines   now   do 
most      of     the 
work    of  the 
fields.   The  seed 
is    planted,   the 
grain    cut     and 
bound     into 
sheaves,  by  ma 
chines  which  seem  to  act  almost  with  human  intelligence. 
Machines  thresh  out  the  grain,  swift-running  railroad  trains 


COLONIAL  PLOUGH. 


STEAM-PLOUGH. 


INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS  AND  DEVELOPMENT.       519 

convey  it  to  market,  great  elevators  store  and  load  it  on 
shipboard,  and  in  a  thousand  ways  the  aid  of  invention  has 
been  called  in  to  decrease  the  labor  and  add  to  the  produc- 


STEAM  THRESHING-MACHINE. 

tiveness  of  the  farm,  and  to  lessen  the  cost  of  conveying  its 
produce  to  market. 

Irrigation. — The  area  of  farm  lands  in  the  United  States 
has  of  late  years  been  largely  increased  by  irrigating  the 
soil  in  the  rainless  region  of  the  West.  The  water  of  rivers 
and  mountain  streams  is  conveyed  by  canals  to  the  fertile 
lands,  and  there  spread  over  the  ground  by  numerous  small 
channels.  In  this  way  millions  of  acres  have  been  made 
very  productive,  and  millions  more  will  be  in  the  future. 

Fur  Products. — The  early  colonists  quickly  found  another 
valuable  source  of  profit  in  the  great  number  and  variety 
of  fur-bearing  animals  that  dwelt  in  the  forests  of  this  coun 
try,  and  whose  furs  brought  high  prices  in  Europe.  At  first 
these  were  purchased  from  the  Indians,  and  to  this  traffic 
the  Dutch  settlers  of  New  York  particularly  devoted  them 
selves.  Then  the  whites  began  the  business  of  hunting  and 
trapping.  This  was  particularly  the  case  with  the  French 
of  Canada,  who  penetrated  the  country  deeply  in  all  direc 
tions  in  search  of  furs. 

British  settlers  in  time  vied  with  them  in  activity,  and  as 


520     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

early  as  1670  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  was  established 
for  the  purpose  of  seeking  fur  animals  in  the  wintry  regions 
of  the  far  north.  In  time  this  company  extended  its  field 

of  labor  to  the  Pacific, 
absorbing  other  compa 
nies,  and  making  a  vig 
orous  effort,  which  hap 
pily  failed,  to  convert 
Oregon  into  a  British 
colony.  The  quantity 

HARVESTING  AND  BINDING  MACHINE.  of  furs    obtained    in  the 

United  States  has  now 

greatly  decreased,  and  Alaska  is  the  principal  field  remain 
ing.  There  the  fur  seal,  once  of  great  value,  is  in  danger  of 
being  entirely  destroyed  by  reckless  adventurers. 

Forestry. — The  vast  forests  of  the  United  States  have 
proved  another  very  valuable  source  of  wealth.  At  first 
used  mainly  for  firewood  or  recklessly  burned  to  clear  the 
soil,  these  forests  have  long  supplied  almost  unlimited  quan 
tities  of  useful  timber.  The  white  pine  of  the  Northern 
woods  has  proved  of  the  utmost  value  as  a  source  of  easily 
worked  wood  for  house-  and  ship-building,  while  from  the 
pines  of  the  South  great  quantities  of  turpentine,  tar,  pitch, 
and  rosin  have  been  obtained.  Of  hard  woods,  suitable 
for  cabinet  purposes,  the  supply  has  been  very  great,  and 
American  walnut  is  one  of  the  most  highly  valued  of  woods 
for  furniture-making. 

Yet  the  forest  wealth  of  this  country  has  been  frightfully 
wasted,  by  the  heedlessness  of  the  woodsman  and  the  care 
lessness  with  which  the  woods  have  been  set  on  fire.  Much 
more  timber  has  been  burned  than  has  been  used,  and  our 
forests  are  rapidly  disappearing.  At  present  the  lumber 
consumed  in  the  United  States  annually  is  over  twenty-four 


INDUSTRIAL   CONDITIONS  AND  DEVELOPMENT.       521 

billion  cubic  feet,  three-fourths  of  which  is  used  for  fuel. 
About  twenty  million  dollars'  worth  is  destroyed  every  year 
by  fire. 

Forest  Preservation. — At  the  present  rate  of  cutting  and 
waste  there  will  soon  be  a  wood  famine  in  this  country.  To 
prevent  this  efforts  are  being  made  to  preserve  the  forests. 
State  forest  commissions  have  been  instituted,  and  the 
American  Forestry  Association  is  actively  at  work.  Forest 
reservations  embracing  many  millions  of  acres  have  been 
made  by  the  general  government.  The  institution  of  Arbor- 
Day,  for  the  voluntary  planting  of  trees  by  the  people  and 
to  encourage  a  love  of  trees  among  school-children,  prom 
ises  to  be  very  useful.  In  the  future  the  reckless  waste  of 
the  past  is  not  likely  to  be  continued. 

The  Fisheries. — Another  highly  important  field  of  labor 
lay  in  the  fisheries  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  which  in  the  early 
days  of  this  country  swarmed  with  food  fishes  of  great 
variety  and  value.  Codfish  were  enormously  abundant  in 
the  vicinity  of  Newfoundland,  the  shad,  herring,  mackerel, 
and  salmon  were  prolific,  and  the  whale-fisheries  led  to 
daring  excursions  into  the  open  seas.  The  oyster-beds  were 
also  rich  and  extensive,  and  the  waters  of  the  coast  fur 
nished  much  of  the  food  of  the  people  and  materials  for 
export  in  colonial  times. 

The  fisheries,  with  the  exception  of  that  for  the  whale, 
still  continue  highly  productive,  the  total  value  of  water 
products  for  the  census  year  of  1890  being  $45,312,818. 
Of  this,  $18,000,000  was  the  product  of  the  oyster-  and 
clam-fisheries.  Of  recent  years  the  very  abundant  salmon- 
fisheries  of  the  Pacific  coast  have  added  greatly  to  the 
annual  yield.  For  years  it  looked  as  if  many  of  the  fish 
would  suffer  the  fate  of  the  forests,  and  be  destroyed  by 
reckless  pursuit.  But  the  new  methods  of  fish-culture  are 


522      STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

beginning  to  restore  the  former  abundance  of  these  in 
valuable  animals. 

The  Fishery  Dispute.— By  the  treaty  of  1783,  which 
closed  the  American  war  for  independence,  all  the  coasts, 
bays,  and  fishing-banks  of  Canada  were  thrown  open  to 
United  States  fishermen.  In  1814,  at  the  close  of  the  second 
war  with  Great  Britain,  the  British  peace  commissioners 
held  that  this  war  had  invalidated  the  earlier  treaty,  while 
the  American  commissioners  claimed  that  the  rights  granted 
in  1783  could  not  be  revoked. 

The  matter  was  left  open,  and  a  dispute  began  which 
continued  for  many  years.  In  1818  the  Americans  were 
granted  the  right  to  fish  outside  of  three  marine  miles  from 
the  Canadian  coast,  but  the  right  to  fish  in  the  Bays  of  St. 
Lawrence,  Fundy,  and  Chaleurs  was  disputed.  The  ques 
tion  regarding  the  Bay  of  Fundy  was  settled  by  arbitration 
in  favor  of  the  United  States,  but  other  matters  remained 
open  till  1871,  when,  by  the  treaty  of  Washington,  the  fish 
eries  of  each  country  were  thrown  open  to  the  fishermen  of 
the  other.  But  Great  Britain  claimed  that  the  American 
fisheries  were  of  little  value,  and  that  she  ought  to  be  paid 
for  the  difference  in  value.  She  claimed  $14,280,000  as 
her  just  due  for  twelve  years, — the  period  of  treaty.  The 
question  was  arbitrated,  and  the  sum  of  $5,500,000  was 
awarded.  In  1888,  the  former  treaty  having  expired,  a 
new  one  was  signed.  This  fixes  a  three-mile  limit  from 
the  Canadian  coast  within  which  American  fishermen  must 
not  enter.  It  also  reserves  all  bays  of  ten  miles  or  less  in 
width.  American  vessels  can  only  land,  sell,  or  other 
wise  dispose  of  their  cargoes  in  Canadian  ports  in  case  of 
distress.  ' 

Manufactures. — But  little  manufacturing  was  done  in 
this  country  in  colonial  times.  It  was  prevented  by  the 


INDUSTRIAL   CONDITIONS   AND   DEVELOPMENT.        523 


stringent  regulations  of  the  British  government,  which 
sought  to  confine  the  colonies  to  the  production  of  raw 
material  and  convert  them  into  markets  for  British  goods. 
Sheep  might  be  raised,  but  their  wool  must  be  sent  to 
England  to  wreave.  Iron  might  be  smelted,  but  not  a  nail 
or  a  horseshoe  must  be  made.  The  beavers  from  whose 
furs  hats  were  made  were  native  to  America,  but  the  busi 
ness  of  the  hatter  was  greatly  restricted.  Hats  might  be 
made  for  local  use,  but  could  not  be  sent  from  colony  to 
colony,  or  even  from  one  plantation  to  another. 

What  little  manufacturing  took  place  was  principally 
within  the  limits  of  the  farm-house,  where  wool  and  flax 
were  carded,  spun,  and  woven  into  cloth  by  the  women  of 
the  house,  while  clothes,  hats,  shoes,  furniture,  and  farming 
implements  were  similarly  made  at  home.  Mrs.  Washing 
ton  is  said  to  have  kept  sixteen  spinning-wheels  going.  In 
1789  there  were  very  few  manufactures  within  the  United 
States,  and  the  bulk  of  the  people  were  farmers. 

Progress  in  Man 
ufactures.  —  During 
the  recent  century, 
and  particularly  since 
the  close  of  the 
second  war  with 
Great  Britain,  the 
progress  of  manufac 
tures  in  this  country 
has  been  stupendous, 
and  it  has  given  rise 
to  an  activity  of  in 
vention  and  a  development  of  labor-saving  machinery  which 
are  without  rivalry  in  the  world's  history.  As  evidence  of 
this  it  will  suffice  here  to  say  that  in  1900  the  value  of 


POWER-LOOM. 


524     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

manufactured  products  in  the  United  States  reached  the 
vast  total  of  $13,019,251,614. 

Commerce. — Commercial  activity  early  displayed  itself 
in  the  New  England  colonies,  where  many  ships  were  built, 
and  a  profitable  trade  was  kept  up  with  the  West  Indies 
and  Europe.  So  many  vessels  were  built  for  sale  as  to 
bring  loud  complaints  from  British  builders.  The  exports 
were  principally  fish,  furs,  lumber,  and  iron.  The  South 
exported  rice,  indigo,  tobacco,  tar,  and  turpentine.  The 
effort  of  Great  Britain  to  confine  the  trade  of  America  to 
British  ports  failed,  and  smuggling  went  on  largely,  tea  and 
other  luxuries  being  freely  brought  from  Europe,  and  sugar, 
molasses,  etc.,  from  the  West  Indies. 

During  the  last  century  the  progress  of  American  com 
merce  kept  pace  with  that  of  manufactures.  Once  con 
fined  to  the  exportation  of  agricultural  produce  and  im 
portation  of  manufactured  goods,  this  country  has  now  an 
extensive  export  trade,  and  in  all  the  respects  here  men 
tioned  is  to-day  one  of  the  leading  nations  of  the  world. 
On  July  1,  1901,  the  exports  of  the  United  States  were 
valued  at  nearly  $1,500,000,000,  the  imports  of  the  same 
year  being  about  $820,000,000. 

General  Industrial  Progress. — Within  the  nineteenth 
century  there  was  an  extraordinary  increase  in  wealth  and 
population,  the  former  consisting  of  rich  products  from 
mines  and  vast  amounts  of  goods  from  farm  and  factory, 
while  there  has  been  a  remarkable  variety  of  inventions, 
including  machines  for  almost  every  imaginable  purpose. 


LITERATURE,  SCIENCE,  AND   ART.  525 

t 

9.  LITERATURE,  SCIENCE,  AND   ART. 

Colonial  Literature. — The  early  colonists  were  too  busily 
occupied  in  combating  with  savage  nature  to  trouble  them 
selves  much  about  literature,  science,  or  art.  For  books 
they  had  the  Bible,  and  it  sufficed  for  most  of  them.  There 
were  writers,  but  they  produced  nothing  of  living  value. 
Most  of  the  books  were  collections  of  sermons  or  treatises 
on  theology.  Cotton  Mather,  the  leading  early  writer, 
showed  his  lack  of  intellectual  development  by  his  activity 
in  the  witchcraft  persecution.  Jonathan  Edwards,  the  most 
famous  colonial  author,  wrote  only  on  theological  subjects. 
He  was  one  of  the  deep  thinkers  of  the  world.  Benjamin 
Franklin  was  the  only  writer  on  general  subjects  whose 
works  are  now  read.  His  story  of  his  life  and  the  homely 
wisdom  of  "  Poor  Richard's  Almanac"  are  still  good  popular 
literature.  And  he  had  a  pleasant  vein  of  humor  and  satire 
which  can  still  be  enjoyed. 

Revolutionary  Literature. — During  the  war  for  inde 
pendence  and  the  subsequent  period  men's  thoughts  ran 
largely  on  politics,  and  the  writings  were  principally  politi 
cal.  Patrick  Henry  made  his  famous  speeches,  Thomas 
Paine  wrote  his  stirring  "  Common  Sense"  and  "  Crisis" 
pamphlets,  Hopkinson  and  Trumbull  produced  humorous 
political  poems,  and  Jefferson  wrote  that  famous  state 
paper,  the  u  Declaration  of  Independence."  The  ablest 
political  literature  of  the  period  is  found  in  the  "  Federal 
ist,"  a  collection  of  the  writings  of  Hamilton,  Jay,  and 
Madison  in  support  of  the  Constitution.  This  has  been 
called  "  The  political  classic  of  the  United  States." 

Later  Literature. — Not  until  after  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  did  many  Americans  gain  the  leisure  and 
culture  necessary  to  the  development  of  the  higher  order 


526     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

of  literature.  The  first  writer  to  acquire  feme  in  this  period 
was  Washington  Irving,  whose  humorous  "  Knickerbocker's 
History  of  New  York"  appeared  in  1809,  and  his  delightful 
u  Sketch  Book"  about  ten  years  later.  In  1812,  Bryant, 
then  only  eighteen  years  of  age,  produced  his  famous 
"  Thanatopsis,"  and  with  it  began  the  brilliant  career  of 
American  poetry.  Much  verse  had  been  written  before, 
but  little  poetry.  Of  later  poets  of  fame  it  will  suffice 
here  to  name  Poe,  Whittier,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  and 
Holmes. 

Fiction. — Shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  century 
novels  began  to  appear,  but  the  earliest  writer  of  lasting 
fame  was  Cooper,  whose  "Spy"  appeared  in  1821.  Na 
thaniel  Hawthorne  was  the  first  writer  of  high  powers  to 
follow  him.  These  two  have  been  succeeded  by  numerous 
able  writers  of  fictitious  literature. 

History  and  Philosophy. — The  United  States  has  been 
prolific  of  able  historians,  of  whom  we  need  only  name 
Bancroft,  whose  "  History  of  the  United  States"  began  in 
1834;  Prescott,  the  author  of  many  brilliant  histories; 
Motley,  the  historian  of  the  Dutch  republic ;  and  Parkman, 
whose  records  of  French  history  in  this  country  are  charm 
ingly  rendered.  Of  philosophical  writers  it  will  suffice  to 
name  Emerson,  whose  fame  as  a  brilliant  essayist  is  world 
wide. 

Other  Literature. — The  scope  of  American  literature  is 
too  broad  for  all  its  fields  to  be  named  in  this  brief  re 
view.  It  must  suffice  to  speak  of  Wheaton,  whose  work  on 
international  law  is  the  highest  authority  on  the  subject ; 
Webster  and  Worcester,  who  produced  the  first  standard 
dictionaries  of  the  English  language ;  and  the  famous  works 
on  ornithology  of  Audubon  and  Wilson.  The  list  here 
given  might  be  greatly  extended  by  the  names  of  living 


LITERATURE,  SCIENCE,  AND  ART.  527 

writers  of  fame  and  ability,  but  they  are  too  numerous  and 
varied  to  mention. 

Periodical  Literature. — While  the  literature  of  the 
learned  was  thus  growing  and  spreading,  the  literature  of 
the  masses,  the  newspaper,  was  making  steady  progress. 
The  first  printing-press  in  this  country  was  set  up  at  Cam 
bridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1639.  Compared  with  the  power- 
presses  of  to-day  it  was  an  extraordinarily  rude  and  slow- 
moving  affair.  No  newspaper  press  was  needed  until  1704, 
when  the  Boston  News  Letter,  the  first  weekly  ever  regularly 
published  in  this  country,  appeared.1 

Other  papers  were  afterward  started  in  Boston,  one,  the 
New  England  Courant,  by  the  brother  of  Benjamin  Franklin, 
on  which  that  famous  author  and  statesman  learned  the 
printer's  art.  Coming  to  Philadelphia  in  1723,  he  found 
there  a  paper,  the  American  Weekly  Mercuric,  established 
in  1719.  In  1729  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette  was  founded. 
This  Franklin  quickly  purchased,  and  continued  to  issue 
until  1748.  It  was  published  afterward  until  about  1820. 

Newspaper  Progress. — In  1750  there  were  only  seven 
newspapers  in  the  colonies.  These  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution  had  increased  to  thirty-seven,  of  which  New 
England  published  fourteen,  New  York  four,  Pennsylvania 
nine,  and  the  South  ten.  But  these  small  sheets,  issued 
weekly,  with  little  news  and  few  advertisements,  and  their 
information  from  Europe  several  weeks  old,  were  but  dwarf 
ish  predecessors  of  the  giant  daily  newspapers  of  to-day. 

The    first   daily  paper,    The  American  Daily  Advertiser, 


1  The  first  attempt  to  issue  a  newspaper  in  America  was  made  in 
Boston  in  1689,  and  a  second  (Publick  Occurrences)  in  1690 ;  but  both 
were  immediately  suppressed  by  the  authorities.  Only  one  copy  of  the 
first  and  two  of  the  second  of  these  papers  are  known  to  exist. 


528     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN   THE  UNITED   STATES. 

appeared  in  Philadelphia  in  1784.  Since  then  there  has 
been  a  remarkable  progress  in  newspaper  enterprise  in  this 
country,  far  surpassing  that  of  Great  Britain  and  any  other 
land.  The  first  one-cent  daily,  the  New  York  Daily  8un{ 
appeared  in  1833.  This  was  a  small  sheet  compared  with 
the  many-paged  one-cent  papers  now  issued.  There  are 
at  present  published  in  this  country  more  than  twenty 
thousand  newspapers,  while  the  whole  world  only  pub 
lishes  about  fifty  thousand.  They  deal  with  every  subject, 
commerce,  science,  industry,  society,  art,  religion,  etc., 
while  their  circulation  has  become  enormously  great. 

Magazines. — Magazine  literature  began  in  this  country  in 
the  later  years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  though  the  pro 
ductions  of  that  period  have  long  since  ceased  to  be  read. 
The  oldest  existing  American  magazine  is  the  North  Ameri 
can  Review,  first  issued  in  1815.  The  existing  magazines 
of  this  country  are  of  great  excellence,  particularly  in  their 
illustrations,  in  which  they  have  no  equals  in  the  world. 
Some  of  these  richly  illustrated  American  monthlies  have 
a  circulation  in  all  parts  of  the  British  empire. 

Science. — The  cultivation  of  science  began  in  the  colonial 
period.  American  astronomy  began  with  Rittenhouse,  a 
friend  of  Washington,  and  Godfrey,  the  inventor  of  the 
quadrant,  so  useful  to  mariners.  More  famous  was  Frank 
lin,  whose  electrical  discoveries  became  the  admiration  of 
Europe.  In  botany  the  two  Bartrams  (father  and  son)  won 
wide-spread  fame.  Somewhat  later  appeared  Audubon, 
whose  studies  of  bird-life  read  like  a  romance.  Of  more 
recent  students  of  science  in  this  country  may  be  named 
Agassiz,  the  famous  zoologist ;  Dana,  the  geologist ;  Grey, 
the  botanist ;  Morton,  the  discoverer  of  anaesthetics  ;  Thomp 
son,  to  whom  we  owe  the  theory  that  heat  is  a  mode  of 
motion ;  Draper,  the  student  of  photography  ;  and  Henry, 


LITERATURE,  SCIENCE,  AND   ART.  529 

the  electrician.  This  is  but  a  partial  list,  while  the  names 
of  more  recent  scientists  of  high  ability  are  too  numerous 
to  be  here  given.  To-day  the  United  States  stands  among 
the  leading  countries  in  the  pursuit  of  science. 

Museums  and  Scientific  Institutions. — The  earliest  sci 
entific  body  in  this  country  was  the  American  Philosophical 
Society,  instituted  at  Philadelphia  a  century  and  a  half  ago. 
The  earliest  museum  was  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
of  Philadelphia,  organized  in  1812.  Such  societies  and 
museums  are  now  very  numerous  and  many  of  them  of 
high  standing.  In  the  making  of  telescope  lenses  American 
opticians  are  the  first  in  the  world. 

Libraries. — Public  libraries  began  in  this  country  with 
the  Philadelphia  Library,  founded  by  Franklin  in  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Libraries  are  now  found  every 
where,  several  of  them  very  large,  while  free  libraries  are 
rapidly  multiplying.  The  largest  is  the  Library  of  Congress, 
whose  number  of  books  is  rapidly  approaching  a  million. 
The  Boston  Public  Library,  with  nearly  six  hundred  thou 
sand  volumes,  comes  next.  Others  of  large  size  exist  in 
various  cities.  Of  private  libraries  the  oldest  is  that  of  Har 
vard  University,  which  began  in  1638.  It  now  contains 
more  than  three  hundred  thousand  volumes. 

Art. — The  eighteenth  century  produced  several  painters 
of  note  in  this  country,  of  whom  the  best  known  were  West? 
Copley,  Stuart,  Allston,  and  Trumbull.  Later  appeared 
Cole,  Huntington,  Church,  Bierstadt,  and  others,  including 
Morse,  the  inventor  of  the  electric  telegraph.  Of  famous 
sculptors  may  be  named  Greenough,  Crawford,  Powers, 
Rogers,  and  Story.  In  recent  times,  and  particularly  since 
the  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia,  with  its  useful 
lessons  in  industrial  art,  this  country  has  greatly  advanced 
in  artistic  taste  and  feeling.  Of  art  museums  the  Pennsyl- 

34 


530     STAGES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

vania  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  at  Philadelphia,  stands  as 
the  pioneer.  Many  other  academies  and  schools  have  suc 
ceeded,  while  industrial  art  is  being  taught  in  numbers  of 
institutions. 

10.  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS. 

What  Education  Includes, — The  word  "  education"  has 
a  much  wider  meaning  than  is  usually  given  to  it.  It  com 
prises  instruction  in  two  series  of  events,  those  of  the  past 
and  of  the  present.  The  former  must  be  mainly  derived 
from  books,  since  it  only  exists  as  a  record  of  man's  doings. 
The  latter  is  largely  gained  by  observation,  and  is  derived 
from  association  with  mankind,  and  the  study  of  methods 
of  business,  industry,  etc.  But  when  we  speak  of  educa 
tion,  we  usually  mean  that  which  is  obtained  in  schools, 
through  the  aid  of  books  and  teachers.  The  other  is  known 
as  life  experience,  and  is  the  practical  education  which 
every  living  person  gains  in  some  measure,  even  those  who 
are  destitute  of  book-learning. 

The  Puritan  Schools. — The  necessity  of  general  educa 
tion  was  quickly  felt  in  Massachusetts,  and  as  early  as  1635 
steps  were  taken  to  establish  a  public  school  in  Boston.  The 
other  towns  of  the  colony  soon  followed  this  example,  and 
in  1647  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  passed  an  act 
requiring  every  town  to  establish  a  free  school.  If  there 
were  a  hundred  families  a  grammar  school  was  demanded. 
Penalties  were  laid  on  every  town  that  did  not  comply  with 
this  requirement. 

In  this  action  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the  common- 
school  system  of  this  country.  The  other  colonies  of  New 
England  proved  as  active  in  this  direction  as  Massachusetts. 
A  public  school  was  started  at  New  Haven  in  three  years 
and  at  Newport  in  two  years  after  their  settlement.  Every 


EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS.  531 

town  in  Connecticut  was  required  to  keep  a  school  open 
for  three  months  in  the  year,  under  penalty  of  fine.  Laws 
were  passed  in  every  colony  but  Plymouth  compelling  every 
child  to  attend  school.  How  these  laws  worked  we  do  not 
know.  There  are  such  laws  to-day,  but  they  do  not  work 
very  well. 

Education  in  Virginia. — An  attempt  was  made  to  estab 
lish  schools  in  Virginia  at  an  early  date,  but  education  in 
that  colony  was  afterward  much  neglected.  In  1671  Sir 
William  Berkeley  wrote,  "  I  thank  God  there  are  no  free 
schools  nor  printing ;  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have,  these 
hundred  years.  God  keep  us  from  both."  Fortunately  his 
wish  did  not  bear  fruit.  A  free  school  was  endowed  five 
years  afterward.  Yet  education  remained  very  backward 
in  the  Southern  colonies.  Even  the  children  of  the  wealthy 
planters  found  no  suitable  schools,  and  were  chiefly  edu 
cated  by  tutors  at  home  or  were  sent  to  school  in  England. 

Schools  in  Other  Colonies. — An  act  was  passed  in  Mary 
land  in  1694  for  the  establishment  of  free  schools,  but  the 
first  school  under  it  did  not  appear  till  1723.  A  free  school 
was  founded  at  Charleston  in  1712.  A  school  was  opened 
by  the  Dutch  in  New  Amsterdam  in  1633,  but  the  cause  of 
education  advanced  very  slowly,  falling  off  under  the  Eng 
lish,  and  it  was  not  until  1732  that  a  school  of  Latin,  Greek, 
and  mathematics  was  founded.  The  Quakers  of  Pennsyl 
vania  were  more  active  in  preparing  for  education.  A 
school  was  opened  in  Philadelphia  in  the  year  of  its  set 
tlement,  and  in  the  sixth  year  a  free  academy  was  founded. 
There  were  many  successful  private  schools  in  the  middle 
colonies,  but  little  of  the  public  money  was  spent  for  edu 
cation. 

Higher  Education. — Schools  preparatory  to  college  were 
founded  in  several  colonies,  and  three  of  these  of  very 


532     STAGES  OF   PROGRESS   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

early  establishment  still  exist.  These  are  the  Boston  Latin 
School,  founded  in  1635,  the  Collegiate  School,  at  New 
York,  in  1633,  and  the  William  Penn  Charter  School,  at 
Philadelphia,  in  1689. 

Harvard  College. — In  1636.  six  years  after  Boston  was 
settled,  the  General  Court  voted  a  year's  tax  of  the  colony, 
four  hundred  pounds,  for  the  establishment  of  a  seminary 
or  college  at  Newtown, — afterward  called  Cambridge.  Two 
years  later  the  Rev.  John  Harvard,  of  Charlestown,  left  to 
this  school  his  library  of  three  hundred  and  twenty  volumes 
and  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  in  money.  In  recog 
nition  of  this  gift  the  institution  was  named  Harvard  Col 
lege.  It  is  now  the  flourishing  Harvard  University.  So 
great  was  the  interest  felt  in  this  college  that  in  1645  every 
family  in  the  colony  gave  it  either  a  peck  of  corn  or  a  shil 
ling  in  money. 

Yale  College. — Similar  action  was  taken  in  Connecticut. 
In  1700  two  ministers  brought  together  such  books  as  they 
could  spare,  saying,  "  I  give  these  bookfe  for  founding  a 
college  in  Connecticut."  In  this  humble  way  Yale  College 
began.  It  was  founded  in  1701,  at  Saybrook,  but  removed 
to  New  Haven,  where  it  still  remains,  in  1716.  It  was 
named  after  Governor  Yale,  who  had  been  generous  in  its 
aid. 

"William  and  Mary  College. — There  was  a  school  founded 
at  Elizabeth  City,  Virginia,  four  years  before  Harvard  Col 
lege,  it  being  endowed  with  two  hundred  acres  of  land  and 
eight  cows.  In  1693  there  was  founded  at  Williamsburg, 
the  capital  of  Virginia,  William  and  Mary  College,  the  sec 
ond  in  this  country.  This  college,  before  the  Revolution  the 
richest  in  the  country,  has  much  declined  in  importance. 

Other  Colleges. — The  other  pre-Revolutionary  colleges 
were  founded  at  the  following  dates:  Princeton,  1746; 


EDUCATIONAL   PROGRESS.  533 

King's  (now  Columbia),  1754;  Pennsylvania,  1755;  Brown, 
1764;  Dartmouth,  1769;  and  Rutgers,  1770. 

Conditions  of  Early  Education. — The  free  schools  of 
colonial  times,  and  until  long  afterward,  gave  but  poor  and 
sparse  education.  The  schools  were  few  and  far  apart,  the 
teachers  and  text-books  were  indifferent,  and  the  instru/> 
tion  was  rudimentary.  The  only  reading-books  in  early 
times  were  the  Bible,  the  Psalter,  and  the  New  England 
Speller.  After  the  Revolution  the  Columbian  Orator  be 
came  very  popular  and  Webster's  Spelling-Book  was  widely 
used.  The  grammars  and  arithmetics  were  crude  produc 
tions.  Writing-books  were  generally  home-made,  and  ruled 
by  the  pupil  with  lead-pencils  made  by  himself.  The 
boys  also  whittled  out  their  own  slate-pencils,  while  the 
teacher  made  the  pens  out  of  goose-quills.  The  use  of  the 
penknife,  and  of  the  switch  on  the  backs  of  the  pupils,  took 
much  of  his  time.  The  teacher  was  paid  partly  by  the 
town,  partly  by  the  scholars,  receiving  from  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  to  three  hundred  dollars  a  year  in  money 
and  produce. 

General  Establishment  of  Common  Schools. — The  con 
stitutions  of  Georgia  in  1777,  Massachusetts  in  1780,  Penn 
sylvania  in  1790,  and  Connecticut  in  1795,  required  free 
schools,  but  these  requirements  were  often  evaded.  In 
New  York  common  schools  were  established  by  Governor 
Clinton  in  1795.  An  important  step  in  the  development  of 
education  was  taken  in  the  ordinance  for  the  government 
of  the  Northwestern  Territory  in  1785.  This  required  that 
section  sixteen  of  every  township  should  be  set  aside  to 
maintain  public  schools. 

School  Funds. — When  Connecticut  donated  her  western 
territory  to  the  United  States,  a  portion  was  reserved  on 
Lake  Erie  to  provide  a  school  fund.  This,  the  u  Western 


534     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

Reserve,"  was  afterward  sold  for  more  than  one  million 
dollars,  and  from  its  proceeds  Connecticut  has  now  a  school 
endowment  of  about  two  million  dollars. 

In  1848,  when  Oregon  Territory  was  organized,  sections 
sixteen  and  thirty-six  of  every  township  were  set  aside  for 
public  schools.  Every  new  State  since  has  taken  similar 
action  with  its  public  lands,  and  each  has  a  large  school 
fund.  Other  lands  have  been  given,  and  in  all  about  eighty 
million  acres  of  land  have  been  thus  devoted.  In  1862 
Congress  donated  thirty  thousand  acres  of  public  lands 
for  every  Senator  and  Representative  in  Congress  for  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  an  agricultural  college  in  each  State. 

Slow  Growth  of  the  School  System. — With  all  that  was 
done,  the  common  school  system  advanced  but  slowly  out 
side  of  New  England,  and  until  1830  private  academies 
prospered.  Progress  was  particularly  slow  in  the  South, 
there  being  before  the  Civil  War  only  four  States  south  of 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line  with  a  public  school  system.  Since 
the  war  free  schools  have  multiplied  in  the  South,  and 
much  has  been  done  for  the  education  of  the  former  slaves. 

Normal  Schools. — The  first  normal  schools,  for  the 
education  of  teachers,  were  founded  in  Massachusetts  in 
1839.  Schools  of  this  kind  now  exist  in  nearly  every  State. 
Everywhere  the  common  schools  have  risen  greatly  in 
grade,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  high  schools,  and  the  public 
colleges  which  some  of  the  States  have  founded,  an  excel 
lent  education  can  now  be  obtained  at  the  public  expense. 

Recent  Progress  in  Education. — During  the  nineteenth 
century  immense  progress  was  made  in  provision  for  the 
higher  education.  Colleges  and  universities  are  now  widely 
distributed,  many  of  them  richly  endowed  by  contributions 
from  wealthy  citizens ;  colleges  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  have  been  founded ;  technical  and  scientific  schools 


THE   NATION   OF  TO-DAY.  535 

have  arisen  widely,  and  excellent  facilities  for  a  liberal  edu 
cation  now  exist.  In  the  improvement  of  text-books  and 
other  requirements  for  the  attainment  of  knowledge  equal 
progress  has  been  made,  while  the  recent  adoption  of  object 
teaching  in  place  of  the  memory  teaching  of  the  past  has 
rendered  the  acquirement  of  knowledge  an  easy  and  pleas 
ant  process,  in  place  of  the  slow  and  painful  methods  with 
which  our  forefathers  gained  their  education. 


ii.   THE   NATION    OF   TO-DAY. 

The  New  South. — The  period  since  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War  has  been  marked  by  a  change  in  the  conditions  of  the 
South  that  is  almost  revolutionary  in  character.  Here, 
where  formerly  almost  the  sole  mercantile  products  were 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  naval  stores  (tar,  turpentine,  etc.),  to 
day  there  is  a  highly  diversified  industry  and  promise  of 
great  future  prosperity.  Agriculture  is  still  the  leading 
pursuit,  but  it  has  greatly  widened  in  scope ;  iron,  coal,  and 
phosphate  rock  are  largely  mined,  cotton-  and  iron-mills 
have  become  numerous,  and  an  immense  lumber  industry 
has  been  developed. 
The  railroad  mile 
age  is  five  times  as 
great  as  in  1860,  and 
in  almost  every  re 
spect  marked  prog 
ress  has  been  made. 

Despite  this  diversity  AN  IRRIGATION  CANAL. 

of  interests  the  cot 
ton  crop  has  more  than  doubled  since  1860,  and  the  cotton 
seed,  which  was  once  thrown  away,  now  yields  large  quan 
tities  of  valuable  oil. 


536     STAGES   OF  PROGRESS  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

The  New  West. — The  West  has  been  settled  with  phe 
nomenal  rapidity  and  become  immensely  productive.  Its 
two  great  industries  are  agriculture  and  mining,  but  these 
have  been  remarkably  developed.  Five  of  the  Western  States 
yield  more  than  half  the  vast  corn  crop  of  the  United  States, 
and  six  States  nearly  half  the  wheat.  The  gold  and  silver 
product  is  unequalled  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  while 
copper,  iron,  and  various  other  minerals  are  largely  pro 
duced.  In  addition  to  these  sources  of  prosperity,  nature 
has  provided  vast  areas  of  timber,  and  grazing  for  mighty 
herds  of  cattle  and  sheep,  while  the  production  of  semi- 
tropical  fruits  in  California  forms  a  great  and  increasing 
source  of  wealth. 

Progress  in  the  North. — While  the  South  and  West  have 
been  thus  progressing,  the  North  has  moved  on  unceasingly 
in  the  lines  already  indicated,  and  has  manifested,  particu 
larly  in  manufactures  and  commerce,  a  remarkable  activity 
and  enterprise.  Railroads  have  reached  almost  every  ham 
let  in  the  land,  telegraphic  wires  cover  the  country  like  a  net 
work,  the  development  of  coal,  iron,  copper,  and  other  mines 
has  been  equally  great,  while  a  new  mining  industry,  that 
of  petroleum,  has  proved  a  vast  source  of  wealth  and  utility. 

Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas. — The  first  petroleum  wells 
were  sunk  in  Western  Pennsylvania  before  the  Civil  War. 
Speculation  aided  their  development,  and  the  rock-oil  pro 
duced  is  now  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  From  the 
wells  sunk  for  oil  a  natural  gas  sometimes  flowed  out  in 
great  quantities.  In  1884  gas  from  some  of  these  wells  was 
carried  by  long  pipes  to  Pittsburg,  where  it  was  burned  to 
give  light  to  houses  and  heat  to  factories.  Oil  and  gas  have 
since  been  found  in  other  States,  and  the  gas  in  various 
localities  has  taken  the  place  of  coal  for  manufacturing  pur 
poses,  though  it  is  decreasing  in  quantity. 


THE  NATION  OF  TO-DAY.  537 

Inventions. — The  immense  progress  which  the  United 
States  has  made  in  almost  all  directions  within  a  century 
has  been  greatly  aided  by  the  inventive  genius  of  the  people, 
whose  ability  in  this  direction  no  other  country  equals. 
Within  the  past  sixty  years  more  than  half  a  million  patents 
have  been  issued  for  new  inventions,  and  patents  are  now 
being  issued  at  the  rate  of  more  than  twenty  thousand  a 
year. 

Many  of  these  are  of  slight  importance,  but  others  have 
proved  of  the  utmost  utility.  The  cotton-gin,  the  steam 
boat,  and  the  telegraph  have  been  mentioned.  They  include 
also  the  reaping-machine,  the  sewing-machine,  the  vulcan 
izing  of  rubber,  the  cylinder  printing-press,  the  electric 
light,  the  trolley  car,  the  telephone,  the  phonograph,  the 
type-writer  and  type-setter,  and  others  too  numerous  to 
mention.  American  activity  in  this  direction  has  done  more 
for  the  comfort  and  prosperity  of  mankind  within  a  century 
than  was  achieved  by  all  the  progress  of  many  preceding 
centuries. 

Change  made  by  Inventions. — Within  the  lifetime  of 
persons  now  living  more  inventions  of  leading  importance 
have  been  made  than  perhaps  in  all  the  ages  before,  and  in 
this  field  of  progress  the  United  States  has  taken  the  lead. 
Our  forefathers  had  only  the  horse  and  the  boat  for  travel 
and  conveyance  of  freight.  Steam  has  changed  all  this,  and 
we  can  go  round  the  world  to-day  in  less  time  than  it  took 
to  sail  from  England  to  America  a  century  ago.  In  those 
days  rock-oil,  gas,  and  the  electric  light  were  unknown, 
stoves  were  little  used,  cloth  was  woven  and  dyed  by  hand, 
and  a  variety  of  articles  that  are  now  made  rapidly  and 
cheaply  by  machinery  were  produced  slowly  by  hand,  or 
were  entirely  unknown.  As  an  example,  wood,  coal,  gas, 
steam,  and  hot  a>  have  been  used  successively  for  heating 


538     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

our  houses,  and  electricity  is  now  coming  into  use  for  this 
purpose,  and  may  in  time  furnish  the  world's  heat-supply. 

Amusements. — The  comfort  of  our  people  has  not  alone 
been  considered.  The  art  of  entertainment  has  also  greatly 
advanced.  The  theatre  has  developed  until  now  plays  are 
presented  with  a  richness  and  naturalness  of  effect  that 
would  have  astounded  our  ancestors,  while  operatic  enter 
tainments  and  music  in  general  have  been  similarly  devel 
oped.  Of  the  extension  of  galleries  of  art  and  museums  of 
science  we  have  already  spoken.  Out-door  exercise  has  also 
much  advanced,  and  the  college  and  other  games  of  to-day 
attract  thousands  of  interested  spectators. 

Parks. — A  more  widely  enjoyed  opportunity  for  health 
ful  and  pleasurable  out-door  exercise  is  furnished  by  the 
charming  parks  and  public  gardens  which  have  been  added 
to  nearly  all  our  cities,  and  which  furnish  recreation  and 
delight  to  millions  of  our  people.  In  addition  to  these,  parks 
for  public  enjoyment,  furnished  with  ample  provision  for 
popular  amusement,  are  being  founded  by  railway  and  steam 
boat  lines  in  the  vicinity  of  the  large  cities. 

Architecture. — Not  least  among  the  advances  of  the  time 
is  that  which  has  been  made  in  architecture.  The  log  cabin 
and  the  rude  frame  house  of  the  colonies  are  now  to  be 
found  only  in  the  most  undeveloped  regions,  while  in  the 
cities  palatial  mansions  and  business  houses  are  rising  by 
hundreds,  in  which  great  attention  is  paid  to  architectural 
beauty  and  effect.  A  late  development  in  this  direction  is 
the  great  apartment  or  business  house,  reaching  for  many 
stories  into  the  air,  and  a  hive  of  human  life.  These  lofty 
edifices  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  invention  of  the  elevator, 
which  alone  has  rendered  them  possible. 

Temperance. — Among  the  promising  steps  of  progress  of 
recent  times,  none  are  more  so  than  the  development  of  the 


THE  NATION   OF  TO-DAY.  539 

temperance  sentiment.  Up  to  1825  intoxication  was  so 
common  a  vice  in  this  country  as  scarcely  to  attract  notice. 
All  classes  of  the  community  drank  freely,  and  even  clergy 
men  did  not  hesitate  to  follow  the  bad  example.  In  1825 
the  first  temperance  society  was  formed,  and  in  the  suc 
ceeding  years  a  wave  of  temperance  sentiment  swept  over 
the  land.  To-day  this  is  not  so  active  as  formerly,  but 
drunkenness  is  no  longer  respectable,  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  population  look  upon  it  as  a  degrading  vice.  Nearly 
all  the  States  have  passed  laws  which  require  school-chil 
dren  to  be  taught  the  necessity  and  advantage  of  temper 
ance  and  the  evils  which  arise  from  the  use  of  intoxicating 
liquors. 

Public  Benevolence. — Within  late  times  the  spirit  of 
kindness  and  benevolence  has  greatly  developed  in  this 
country.  The  cruel  punishments  of  past  centuries  have 
come  to  an  end  through  the  awakened  sympathy  of  the 
people,  and  this  spirit  of  kindly  care  has  been  extended  to 
include  animals,  for  whose  comfort  few  people  cared  in  the 
past.  Charitable  institutions  have  everywhere  arisen,  and 
every  year  millions  of  dollars  are  given  by  the  benevolent 
for  the  care  of  the  afflicted  and  helpless.  Great  sums  have 
also  been  given  to  endow  colleges  and  universities,  and  this 
sentiment  of  benevolence  and  public  spirit  is  growing  with 
the  greatest  rapidity.  Its  results  must  be  of  immense  bene 
fit  to  mankind. 

Extension  of  Territory.— Since  this  country  gained  its 
freedom  from  Great  Britain  its  territory  has  very  greatly 
increased.  By  the  treaty  of  1783  it  acquired  a  territory  of 
over  827,000  square  miles,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Mississippi.  The  subsequent  accessions  of  territory 
were  as  follows :  In  1803  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  added 
about  920,000  square  miles,  more  than  doubling  our  terri- 


540     STAGES   OF   PROGRESS   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

tory.  The  purchase  of  Florida  in  1819  added  59,268,  and 
the  annexation  of  Texas  in  1845  376,133  square  miles. 
In  1846  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  gave  us  Oregon,  con 
taining  about  255,000  square  miles ;  and  as  a  result  of 
the  war  with  Mexico  there  were  purchased  New  Mexico 
and  California,  embracing  545,783  square  miles.  In  1853 
another  portion  of  territory,  the  Gadsden  Purchase,  was 
bought  from  Mexico,  embracing  45,535  square  miles.  A 
later  acquisition  was  that  of  Alaska,  purchased  from  Russia 
in  1867,  and  containing  about  577,000  square  miles.  In 
1898  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  in  the  central  Pacific  Ocean, 
of  6740  square  miles  area,  were  acquired  by  annexation, 
and  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  in  the  West  Indies,  of  3668 
square  miles,  was  gained  by  conquest  from  Spain.  The 
war  with  Spain  also  yielded  the  Philippine  Islands,  of 
115,000  square  miles,  in  the  eastern  Pacific,  which  were 
acquired  through  the  treaty  with  Spain  ratified  by  Con 
gress  in  February,  1899.  At  present  the  United  States 
has  an  area  of  about  3,725,000  square  miles,  more  than 
four  times  its  original  area. 

This  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  all  Europe,  and  more 
than  half  that  of  South  America.  There  are  twenty-four 
of  our  States  each  of  which  is  larger  than  England. 

Natural  Conditions  of  Progress. — This  vast  area,  inhab 
ited  by  more  than  seventy  million  people  gathered  from  all 
the  civilized  and  many  of  the  uncivilized  nations  of  the 
earth,  has  unequalled  natural  advantages.  Its  soil  is  capa 
ble  of  supplying  abundant  food  for  a  much  larger  popula 
tion,  while  its  mines  of  varied  products  and  its  immense 
forests  are  rich  reservoirs  of  wealth. 

No  other  territory  of  equal  extent  is  more  abundantly 
supplied  by  nature  with  navigable  waters,  including  the  Mis 
sissippi  and  its  affluents  in  the  vast  interior  and  the  Great 


ISLANDS  WEST  OF 
PORTO  RICO 

,     Same  Scale  as  Large  Map 


#$**\+ 

v%%.  Vv_c^%°- 


10RTO  RICO 

Srale  jf  Miles      

5  10  15  20 

Explanation. 


SDADS_._ 

!l  iOADJ 


\  g-ht  1902  by  J.  B.  Llppincott  Company 


Pt. Arenas 
Pt.  Occidental 
Pt.  Vuci 

C  A  R  I  B  B  L 


65°,  30' 


ISLANDS  EAST  OF 
RTO  RIC< 

Scale  aa  Large  Map 

ej.nmt  t  .ON  ..CM,  .O.TON     18 


SEA  pORTO  RICO 

Same  Scale  as  Large  Map 


THE   NATION   OF   TO-DAY.  541 

Lakes  on  the  north.  The  Falls  of  Niagara  and  the  rapid 
descent  of  many  of  the  smaller  streams  yield  water-power 
of  enormous  extent.  This  power  is  being  utilized  for  the 
production  of  electricity,  and  in  time  may  replace  the  greater 
part  of  the  working  force  which  is  now  derived  from  coal. 

The  Future  of  the  Republic. — This  great  republic  of  the 
West  has  undoubtedly  before  it  a  grand  future.  For  more 
than  a  century  it  has  served  as  an  object-lesson  to  the 
nations  of  Europe,  teaching  them  the  blessings  of  political 
freedom,  the  advantages  of  free  education,  and  other  lessons 
of  great  importance.  Its  mission  as  a  teacher  of  new  ideas 
and  new  methods  will  continue,  as  its  own  institutions 
develop  and  new  methods  of  public  administration,  indus 
try,  and  education  unfold,  and  for  a  long  period  to  come  it 
may  serve  as  an  example  of  political,  social,  and  industrial 
evolution  to  the  world.  There  are  many  important  prob 
lems  still  to  be  solved  before  it  can  reach  the  goal  toward 
which  it  is  moving.  What  the  United  States  of  the  far 
future  will  be  no  one  to-day  can  predict.  But  we  can 
scarcely  doubt  that  it  will  continue  to  occupy  one  of  the 
foremost  places  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 


THE   MAYFLOWER  COMPACT. 

IN  the  name  of  God,  Amen ;  We  whose  names  are  under-written, 
the  loyall  subjects  of  our  dread  soveraigne  Lord  King  James,  by  ye 
grace  of  God  of  Great  Britaine,  France  and  Ireland,  King,  defender  of 
ye  faith,  &c.,  haveing  undertaken,  for  ye  glorie  of  God  and  advance- 
mente  of  ye  Christian  faith,  and  honour  of  our  King  and  countrie,  a 
voyage  to  plant  the  first  colonie  in  ye  Northerne  parts  of  Virginia,  doe 
by  these  presents  solemnly  and  mutually  in  ye  presence  of  God,  and 
one  of  another,  covenant  and  combine  ourselves  together  into  a  civill 
body  politick,  for  our  better  ordering  and  preservation  and  furtherance 
of  ye  ends  aforesaid ;  and  by  vertue  hereof  to  enact,  constitute  and 
frame  such  just  and  equall  lawes,  ordinances,  acts,  constitutions  and 
offices,  from  time  to  time,  as  shall  be  thought  most  meete  and  conve 
nient  for  ye  generall  good  of  ye  colonie,  unto  which  we  promise  all 
due  submission  and  obedience.  In  witnesse  whereof  we  have  here- 
under  subscribed  our  names,  Cape  Cod  11  of  November,  in  the  yeare  of 
the  raigne  of  our  soveraigne  Lord  King  James  of  England,  France  and 
Ireland  18,  and  of  Scotland  54.  Anno  Domini,  1620. 


542 


THE   DECLARATION   OF    INDEPENDENCE, 
IN  CONGRESS,  JULY  4,  1776. 


A   DECLARATION    BY  THE   REPRESENTATIVES   OF   THE  UNITED   STATE*   OF 
AMERICA,  IN  CONGRESS  ASSEMBLED. 

WHEN,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with 
another,  and  to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate 
and  equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God 
entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that 
they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are  created 
equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable 
rights  ;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 
That,  to  secure  these  rights,  governments  are  instituted  among  men, 
deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed;  that, 
whenever  any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends, 
it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a 
new  government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and  organ 
izing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to 
effect  their  safety  and  happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that 
governments  long  established  should  not  be  changed  for  light  and 
transient  causes ;  and,  accordingly,  all  experience  hath  shown,  that 
mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than 
to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are  accus 
tomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing 
invariably  the  same  object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under 
absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such 
government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  future  security. 
Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies,  and  such  is 
now  the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems 
of  government.  The  history  of  the  present  king  of  Great  Britain  is  a 
history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object 

543 


544  THE   DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE. 

the  establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these  States.     To  prove 
this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid  world : 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary 
for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  press 
ing  importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent 
should  be  obtained ;  and,  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected 
to  attend  to  them. 

;He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large 
districts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of 
representation  in  the  legislature;  a  right  inestimable  to  them,  and 
formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncom 
fortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing,  with 
manly  firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time,  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause 
others  to  be  elected ;  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of 
annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise ; 
the  State  remaining,  in  the  mean  time,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of 
invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States ;  for 
that  purpose,  obstructing  the  laws  for  naturalization  of  foreigners ; 
refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  raising 
the  conditions  of  new  appropriations  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his  assent 
to  laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone,  for  the  tenure  of 
their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms 
of  officers  to  harass  our  people,  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without 
the  consent  of  our  legislature. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  superior 
to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign 
to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws  ;  giving  his  assent 
to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us  : 


THE  DECLARATION   OF  INDEPENDENCE.  545 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any 
murders  which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  States : 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world : 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent : 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury : 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offences : 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring 
province,  establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging 
its  boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument 
for  introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  colonies : 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws, 
and  altering,  fundamentally,  the  forms  of  our  governments : 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  in 
vested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

fle  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  protec 
tion  and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burnt  our  towns,  and 
destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries 
to  complete  the  works  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny,  already 
begun,  with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled 
in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civil 
ized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high 
seas,  to  bear  arms  against  their  country*  to  become  the  executioners 
of  their  friends  and  brethren?  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us?  and  has  endeav 
ored  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian 
savages^  whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruc 
tion  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress,  in 
the  most  humble  terms ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  answered 
only  by  repeated  injury.  A  prince  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by 
every  act  which  may  define  a  tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free 
people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our  British  brethren.  We 
have  warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  legislature 
to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded 
them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We 
have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity,  and  we  have 

35 


546  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred,  to  disavow  these 
usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections  and 
correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and 
consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which 
denounces  our  separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  man 
kind,  enemies  in  war,  in  peace  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
general  Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the 
world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and 
declare,  That  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free 
and  independent  States ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to 
the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and 
the  State  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved ;  and 
that,  as  free  and  independent  States,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war, 
conclude  peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  to  do  all 
other  acts  and  things  which  independent  States  may  of  right  do.  And, 
for  the  support  of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  pro 
tection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our 
lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 

JOHN  HANCOCK. 


New  Hampshire. — JOSIAH  BARTLETT,  WILLIAM  WHIPPLE,  MATTHEW 
THORNTON. 

Massachusetts  Bay. — SAMUEL  ADAMS,  JOHN  ADAMS,  ROBERT  TREAT 
PAINE,  ELBRIDGE  GERRY. 

Rhode  Island. — STEPHEN  HOPKINS,  WILLIAM  ELLERY. 

Connecticut. — ROGER  SHERMAN,  SAMUEL  HUNTINGTON,  WILLIAM  WIL 
LIAMS,  OLIVER  WOLCOTT. 

New  York. — WILLIAM  FLOYD,  PHILIP  LIVINGSTON,  FRANCIS  LEWIS, 
LEWIS  MORRIS. 

New  Jersey. — RICHARD  STOCKTON,  JOHN  WITHERSPOON,  FRANCIS  HOP- 
KINSON,  JOHN  HART,  ABRAHAM  CLARK. 

Pennsylvania. — ROBERT  MORRIS,  BENJAMIN  RUSH,  BENJAMIN  FRANK 
LIN,  JOHN  MORTON,  GEORGE  CLYMER,  JAMES  SMITH,  GEORGE  TAYLOR,  JAMES 
WILSON,  GEORGE  Ross. 

Delaware. — CAESAR  RODNEY,  GEORGE  READ,  THOMAS  McKEAN. 

Maryland. — SAMUEL  CHASE,  WILLIAM  PACA,  THOMAS  STONE,  CHARLES 
CARROLL  of  Carrollton. 


THE  DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE.  547 

Virginia. — GEORGE  WYTHE,  RICHARD  HENRY  LEE,  THOMAS  JEFFERSON. 
BENJAMIN  HARRISON.  THOMAS  NELSON,  FRANCIS  LIGHTFOOT  LEE,  CARTER 
BRAXTON. 

North  Carolina. — WILLIAM  HOOPER,  JOSEPH  HEWES,  JOHN  PENN. 

South.  Carolina. — EDWARD  RUTLEDGE,  THOMAS  HEYWARD,  THOMAS 
LYNCH,  ARTHUR  MIDDLETON. 

Georgia. — BUTTON  GWINNETT,  LYMAN  HALL,  GEORGE  WALTON. 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

WE,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
Union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the 
common  defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings 
of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this 
CONSTITUTION  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

SECTION  I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in 
a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives. 

SECTION  II.  1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of 
members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States, 
and  the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite 
for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the 
whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a 
term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other 
persons.     The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years 
after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within 
every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  a  manner  as  they  shall  by 
law  direct.     The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for 
every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  Repre 
sentative  ;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  3 ;   Massachusetts,  8  ;  Rhode 
Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  1 ;  Connecticut,  5 ;  New  York,  6 ; 
New  Jersey,  4;  Pennsylvania,  8;  Delaware,  1;  Maryland,  6;  Virginia, 
10;  North  Carolina,  5;  South  Carolina,  5,  and  Georgia,  3.1 

1  See  Article  XIV.,  Amendments. 
548 


THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.        549 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the 
executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and  other 
officers  ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

SECTION  III.  1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed 
of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for 
six  years ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
classes.     The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at 
the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration 
of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth 
year,  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year  ;  and  if  vacan 
cies  happen  by  resignation  or   otherwise,  during  the   recess  of  the 
Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Executive  thereof  may  make  temporary 
appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Legislature,  which  shall 
then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  President 
pro  tempore  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall 
exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried  the  Chief  Justice  shall 
preside  ;  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of 
two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than 
to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office 
of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States  ;  but  the  party  con 
victed  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial, 
judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

SECTION  IV.  1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections 
for  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by 
the.  Legislature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make 


550       THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Sen 
ators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such 
meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  of  December,  unless  they  shall  by 
law  appoint  a  different  day. 

SECTION  V.  1.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  re 
turns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each 
shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller  number  may 
adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attend 
ance  of  absent  members  in  such  manner  and  under  such  penalties  as 
each  House  may  provide. 

2.  Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish 
its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time 
to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judg 
ment  require  secrecy  ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either 
House  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present, 
be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any 
other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SECTION  VI.  1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a 
compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out 
of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except 
treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  dur 
ing  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in 
going  to  and  returning  from  the  same  ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in 
either  House  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he 
was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during  such  time  ;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of  either 
House  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

SECTION  VII.  1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with 
amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  becomes  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  Pres- 


THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.        551 

ident  of  the  United  States  ;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not 
he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall 
have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal, 
and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds 
of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together 
with  the  objections,  to  the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be 
reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  House  it  shall 
become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall 
be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting 
for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  House 
respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within 
ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him, 
the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless 
the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it 
shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote,  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  adjournment),  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved 
by  him,  or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  snail  be  repassed  by  two-thirds 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and 
limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

SECTION  VIII.     The  Congress  shall  have  power : 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the 
debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  United  States  ; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  sev 
eral  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 

4.  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws 
on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States ; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities 
and  current  coin  of  the  United  States  ; 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads ; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing 
for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  rights  to  their 
respective  writings  and  discoveries  ; 


552       THE   CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations  ; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water ; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  ; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation, of  the  land 
and  naval  forces ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions ; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia, 
and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appoint 
ment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according 
to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress ; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of 
the  Government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over 
all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals, 
dock-yards,  and  other  needful  buildings  ;  and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carry 
ing  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any 
department  or  officer  thereof. 

SECTION  IX.  1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any 
of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  pro 
hibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not 
exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  propor 
tion  to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 


THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.        553 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or 
revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall  ves 
sels  bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties 
in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States ;  and  no 
person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office, 
or  title  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

SECTION  X.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  con 
federation  ;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money ;  emit 
bills  of  credit;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in 
payment  of  debts  ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law 
impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  im 
post  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws ;  and  the  net  produce  of  all 
duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be 
for  the  use  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States ;  and  all  such  laws 
shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of 
tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as 
will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE  II. 

SECTION  I.  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term 
of  four  years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the 
same  term,  be  elected  as  follows : 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Sena 
tors  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the 
Congress ;  but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an 
office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an 
elector. 


554       THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  State  with  themselves.     And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all 
the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  list 
they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  Gov 
ernment  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate. 
The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall 
then  be  counted.     The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who 
have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of 
them  for  President ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the 
five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the 
President.     But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum 
for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds 
of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.     In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice- 
President.     But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal 
votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President.]  l 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors, 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes ;  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that 
office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and 
been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the 
Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resigna 
tion,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declaring 
what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accord 
ingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

1  This  clause  is  superseded  by  Article  XII.,  Amendments. 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.       555 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not 
receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office  he  shall  take  the 
following  oath  or  affirmation :  "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I 
will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Con 
stitution  of  the  United  States.1' 

SECTION  II.  1.  The  President  shall  be  Comrnander-in-Chief  of  the 
Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several 
States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States ;  he 
may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of 
their  respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves 
and  pardons  for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  Senators  present 
concur ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con 
sent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers 
and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the 
United  States  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided 
for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law ;  but  the  Congress  may  by 
law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as  they  think  proper 
in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  depart 
ments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the   recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

SECTION  III.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  infor 
mation  of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration 
such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may, on 
extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and, 
in  case  of  disagreement  between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  ad 
journment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper  ; 
he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers  ;  he  shall  take 
care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the 
officers  of  the  United  States. 


556       THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

SECTION  IV.  The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of 
the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for, 
and  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high,  crimes  and  misde 
meanors. 

ARTICLE   III.' 

SECTION  I,  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested 
in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress 
may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of 
the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  com 
pensation,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in 
office. 

SECTION  II.  1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases  in  law 
and  equity  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority ;  to 
all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls ; 
to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction ;  to  controversies 
to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party  ;  to  controversies  be 
tween  two  or  more  States ;  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another 
State ;  between  citizens  of  different  States ;  between  citizens  of  the 
same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  be 
tween  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States,  citizens,  or 
subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  original  jurisdiction.     In  all  the  other  cases  before  men 
tioned  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to 
law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations,  as  the 
Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be 
by  jury ;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said 
crimes  shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when  not  committed  within 
any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may 
by  law  have  directed. 

SECTION  III.  1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only 
in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless 
on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confes 
sion  in  open  court. 


THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED  STATES.      .557 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  trea 
son,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  for 
feiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE   IV. 

SECTION  I.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State. 
And  the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which 
:such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect 
thereof.  '•  -j( 

SECTION  II.  1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State, 
shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which 
he  fled,  be  delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction 
of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  reg 
ulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be 
delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may 
be  due. 

SECTION  III.  1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into 
this  Union ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  any  other  State,  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junc 
tion  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of 
the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Con 
gress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  need 
ful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  be 
longing  to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be 
so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any 
particular  State. 

SECTION  IV.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this 
Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of 
them  against  invasion;  and,  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of 
the  Executive  (when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against 
domestic  violence. 


558       THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  if, 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  States, 
shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either 
case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Con 
stitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the 
several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one 
or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress : 
Provided,  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect 
the  first  and  fourth  clauses  of  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article ; 
and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal 
suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into  before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States 
under  this  Constitution  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall 
be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land  ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby, 
anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  not 
withstanding. 

3.  The   Senators  and   Representatives   before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judi 
cial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall 
be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution ;  but  no 
religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or 
public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratify 
ing  the  same. 

Done  in  Convention,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present, 
the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thou- 


THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.        559 


sand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  Independence  of  the 
United  States  of  America  the  twelfth.  In  witness  whereof,  we  have 
hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON, 
President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 

John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Gilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel  Gorham, 
Rufus  King. 

CONNECTICUT. 

William  Samuel  Johnson, 
Roger  Sherman. 

NEW    YORK. 

Alexander  Hamilton.  ^ 

NEW   JERSEY. 

William  Livingston, 
David  Brearley, 
William  Paterson, 
Jonathan  Dayton. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Benjamin  Franklin, 
Thomas  Mifflin, 
Robert  Morris, 
George  Clymer, 
Thomas  Fitzsimons, 
Jared  Ingersoll, 
James  Wilson, \ 
Gouverneur  Morris. 


Attest 


DELAWARE. 

George  Reed, 
Gunning  Bedford, 
John  Dickinson, 
Richard  Bassett, 
Jacob  Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James  McHenry, 

Daniel  of  St.  Thomas  Jenifer, 

Daniel  Carroll. 

VIRGINIA. 
John  Blair, 
James  Madison. 

NORTH    CAROLINA. 

William  Blount, 
Richard  Dobbs  Spaight, 
Hugh  Williamson. 

SOUTH    CAROLINA. 

John  Rutledge, 
Charles  C.  Pinckney, 
Charles  Pinckney, 
Pierce  Butler. 

GEORGIA. 

William  Few, 
Abraham  Baldwin. 
WILLIAM  JACKSON,  Secretary. 


AMENDMENTS  TO  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion, 
or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of 
speech  or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assem 
ble,  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II. 

,  A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free 
State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be 
infringed. 

ARTICLE  III. 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be 
violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  sup 
ported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to 
be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

/.    •„'/;  ;/  '  .n:;:', 

ARTICLE  V. 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except 
in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in 
actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  person 
be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or 
limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness 
against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without 
due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use 
without  just  compensation. 
560 


AMENDMENTS  TO  THE   CONSTITUTION.  561 

ARTICLE  VI. 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall 
have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the 
nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 
against  him  ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his 
favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the 
United  States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X. 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respec 
tively,  or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XL 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against 
one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or 
subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII. 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be 
an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves ;  they  shall  name  in 

36 


562       THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President ;  and  they  shall  make  distinct 
lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President  and  of  all  persons  voted  for 
as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  Which  list  they 
shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  Govern 
ment  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The 
President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted ;  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  Presi 
dent  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  such  majority, 
then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceeding 
three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in 
choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  repre 
sentation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose 
shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And 
if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President,  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of 
March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the 
President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice- 
President  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  ma 
jority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice-President ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  consti 
tutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that 
of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 


ARTICLE  XIII. 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punish 
ment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall 
exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdic 
tion. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 


AMENDMENTS  TO  THE  CONSTITUTION.  563 

ARTICLE  XIV. 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
State  wherein  they  reside.     No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law 
which   shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States ;  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within 
its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States 
according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of 
persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.     But  when  the 
right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the 
executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legis 
lature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State, 
being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or 
in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion,  or  other 
crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  propor 
tion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole 
number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress,  or 
elector  of   President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or 
military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having 
previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of 
the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an 
executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against 
the  same,  or  given  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.     But  Con 
gress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for 
services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  ques 
tioned.     But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or 
pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of 
any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held 
illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legisla 
tion,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 


564        THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ARTICLE  XV. 

1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  the  provisions  of  this 
article  by  appropriate  legislation. 


RATIFICATION  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION. 

The  Constitution  was  ratified  by  the  thirteen  original  States  in  the 
following  order : 

Delaware,  December  7,  1787 ;  Pennsylvania,  December  12,  1787 ; 
New  Jersey,  December  18, 1787  ;  Georgia,  January  2, 1788 ;  Connecticut, 
January  9,  1788 ;  Massachusetts,  February  6, 1788  ;  Maryland,  April  28, 
1788  ;  South  Carolina,  May  23,  1788;  New  Hampshire,  June  21, 1788; 
Virginia,  June  25,  1788 ;  New  York,  July  26,  1788 ;  North  Carolina,  No 
vember  21,  1789 ;  Rhode  Island,  May  29,  1790. 


RATIFICATION  OF  THE  AMENDMENTS. 

I.  to  X.  inclusive  were  declared  in  force  December  15, 1791 ;  XI.  was 
declared  in  force  January  8,  1798 ;  XII.  was  declared  in  force  Septem 
ber  25,  1804 ;  XIII.  was  proclaimed  December  18,  1865 ;  XIV.  was  pro 
claimed  July  28,  1868 ;  XV.  was  proclaimed  March  30,  1870. 


Table  of  States  and  Territories. 


§ 

NAME. 

ORIGIN  OF  NAME. 

DATE  OF  AD 
MISSION. 

§s 

**  G 

POPULATION. 

1 

Delaware 

In  honor  of  Lord  Delaware  .  . 

1787 

2,050 

184,735 

5 

Pennsylvania 

Penn's  woodland  

d     1787 

45,215 

6  302  115 

:>, 
\ 

New  Jersey  ... 

From  the  Island  of  Jersey    .   . 
In  honor  of  George  II 

.2     1787 
"3     1788 

7,815 
59  475 

1,883,669 
2  216  331 

R 

Connecticut 

Indian  —  long  river      

X     1788 

4  990 

908,355 

6 

7 

Massachusetts   . 
Maryland    ... 

Indian—  at  the  great  hill  .   .   . 
In  honor  of  Henrietta  Maria, 
wife  of  Charles  I  

|     1788 
u  \  1788 

8,315 
12210 

2,805,346 
1190050 

8 
1 

10 

South  Carolina  .   .   . 
New  Hampshire    .   . 
Virginia   

In  honor  of  Charles  II  
From  Hampshire,  England  .   . 
In  honor  of  Queen  Elizabeth  . 

2     1788 
£     1788 
"g     1'88 

30,570 
9,305 
42,450 

1,340,316 
411,588 
1,854,184 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

New  York    
North  Carolina  .   .   . 
Rhode  Island    .  .  . 

Vermont  
Kentucky   

In  honor  of  the  Duke  of  York 
In  honor  of  Charles  II  
Dutch—  Rood  (Red)  Island,  or, 
from  the  Isle  of  Rhodes.  .  . 
French  —  green  mountains   .   . 
Indian  —  probably      hunting 
land       .                   

«c     1788 

'•g     1789 
K 
1790 
.    .    1791 

1792 

49,170 
52,250 

1,250 
9,565 

40400 

7,268,012 
1.893,810 

428,556 
343,641 

2  147  174 

in 

Tennessee   . 

Indian—  crooked  river  .... 

.    .    1796 

42,050 

2,020,616 

17 

Ohio  

Indian  —  beautiful  river  .... 

.    .    1803 

41,060 

4,157,545 

18 
19 

•'0 

Louisiana    
Indiana    

In  honor  of  Louis  XIV.     .  .  . 
From  the  word  "  Indian"    .  . 
Indian  —  great  river 

.    .    1812 
.    .    1816 
-    .    1817 

48,720 
36,350 
46810 

1,381,625 
2,516,462 
1  551  270 

23 

Illinois.  ...... 

From  name  of  river  and  In 

dian  confederacy  .         .  . 

.   .    1818 

56  650 

4  821  550 

90 

Alabama 

Indian  —  here  we  rest  

.    .    1819 

52,250 

1,828,697 

0'> 

Maine 

1820 

33  040 

694  466 

''M 

Indian  —  muddy  river 

.    .    1821 

69  415 

3  106*665 

2f> 

•>fi 

Arkansas  
Michigan 

Indian—  after  its  main  river    . 
Indian  —  great  sea    

.    .    1836 
.   .    1837 

53,850 
58,915 

1,311,564 

2,420  982 

27 

Florida     . 

Spanish  —  flowery  

.   .    1845 

58,680 

528,542 

2(8 

Texas    

Indian  —  name  of  a   tribe   or 

confederacy 

1845 

265780 

3  048  710 

29 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 

Iowa  
Wisconsin   

California   
Minnesota  .... 
Oregon  
Kansas  

Indian  —  meaning  doubtful  .  . 
Indian—  probably     gathering 
waters   
Spanish—  from  an  old  romance 
Indian  —  cloudy  water    .... 
Meaning  doubtful   
Indian  —  meaning  doubtful  .  . 

.   .    1846 

.    .    1848 
.    .    1850 
.    .    1858 
.    .    1859 
.    .    1861 

56,025 

56,040 
158,360 
83,365 
96,030 
82,080 

2,231,853 

2,069,042 
1,485,053 
1,751,394 
413,536 
1,470,495 

3") 
3f, 

West  Virginia    .  .   . 
Nevada    

From  Virginia  
Spanish  —  snowy  mountains   . 

.    .    1863 
.   .    1864 

24,780 
110,700 

958,800 
42,335 

37 

38 

Nebraska    
Colorado  . 

Indian—  shallow  water  .... 
Spanish—  red  or  ruddy  .... 

.    .    1867 
.   .    1876 

77,510 
103,925 

1,068,539 
539700 

S<) 

North  Dakota 

Indian  —  the  allies    .   . 

.   .    1889 

70795 

319  416 

•10 

South  Dakota 

Indian  —  the  allies 

1889 

77  650 

401  570 

41 
42 
43 
44 
4f> 

Montana  
Washington    .... 
Idaho    
Wyoming    
Utah  .       

Spanish  —  montana,  a  mountain 
In  honor  of  Washington  .   .   . 
Indian—  gem  of  the  mountains 
Indian  —  broad  plains  
Indian  —  mountain  home  .   .   . 

.    .    1889 
.    .    1889 
.    .    1890 
.   .    1890 
•    •    1896 

146,080 
69,180 
84,800 
97,890: 
84,970 

243>29 
518,103 
161,772 
92,531 
276,749 

From  Mexico 

122  580 

195  310 

Arizona              .   . 

Meaning  doubtful    ... 

113  020 

122  931 

Oklahoma 

Indian  —  fine  country 

39  030 

398  245 

District  of  Columbia 
Indian  Territory  .   . 
Alaska     

From  Columbus    
From  its  Indian  inhabitants    . 
Indian  —  great  or  main  land    . 

70 
31,400 
577  390 

278J718 
391,960 
63441 

Hawaii             .  .  . 

Given  by  the  Natives  .  . 

6740 

154001 

565 


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566 


SUMMARY   OF   CHRONOLOGY 


874.  Iceland  settled  by  the  Northmen. 
986.  Greenland  settled  by  the  Northmen. 
1000.  The  American  continent  visited  by 

Northmen. 

1492.  Columbus  discovers  America,  Octo 
ber  12. 

1497.  The  Cabots  discover  North  America. 
1507.  The  name  America  is  suggested. 
1513.  Ponce  de  Leon  discovers  Florida. 
1513.  Balboa  discovers  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
1519-22.  Magellan's  fleet  sails  round  the 

globe. 

1524.  Verrazano  explores  the  North  Atlan 
tic  coast. 

1528.  Narvaez  explores  the  Gulf  region. 
1535.  Cartier  sails  up  the  St.  Lawrence; 

names  Montreal. 

1540-42.  Coronado  explores   the   pueblo 
region. 

1541.  De  Soto  discovers  the  Mississippi. 

1542.  Cabrillo    explores    the    California 

coast. 

1562.  Huguenots  reach  America. 
1565.  St.  Augustine  founded ;  Huguenots 

massacred. 

1576.  Frobisher  explores  the  Arctic  region. 
1577-79.  Drake  sails  round  the  globe. 
1578-83.  Gilbert's  voyages. 
1582.  Santa  F6  founded  by  Espejo. 
1585-87.  Raleigh  plants  colonies  on  Roan- 

oke  Island. 

1602.  Gosnold  discovers  Cape  Cod. 
1604.  Port  Royal,  Acadia,  settled  by  the 

French. 

1607.  Jamestown  settled  ;  first  permanent 

English  colony. 

1608.  Quebec  founded  by'Champlain. 

1609.  Lake  Champlain  discovered. 
1609.  Hudson  sails  up  the  Hudson  River. 
1612.  Cultivation  of  tobacco  begins. 
1614.  The  Dutch  take  possession  of  New 

Netherland. 

1619.  The  first   representative    assembly 
meets  at  Jamestown. 


1619.  Negro  slavery  introduced. 

1620.  The  Pilgrims  land  at  Plymouth,  De 

cember  21. 

1620.  Mayflower  compact  signed. 
1623.  First  settlements  in  New  Netherland. 

1625.  Pemaquid  Point,  Maine,  settled. 

1626.  New  Amsterdam  founded. 
1628.  The  Puritans  settle  at  Salem. 
1630.  Boston  founded  by  the  Puritans. 

1633.  First  settlement  in  Connecticut,  at 

Windsor. 

1634.  St.  Mary's,  Maryland,  settled. 

1634.  Religious  liberty  granted  all  Chris 
tians  in  Maryland. 

1636.  Roger  Williams  founds  Providence, 
Rhode  Island. 

1636.  Religious  liberty  granted  all  persons 
in  Rhode  Island. 

1636.  Harvard  College  founded. 

1637.  The  Pequot  War. 

1638.  New  Haven  colony  founded. 

1638.  Delaware    settled    by    Swedes    at 

Christiana. 

1639.  The  Connecticut  Constitution  (the 

first  written  one  in  America). 
1643.  The     New    England    Confederacy 

formed. 

1654.  The  Dutch  capture  New  Sweden. 
1659-61.  Quaker  persecution  in  Massachu 
setts. 

1663.  Settlement  in  North  Carolina. 

1664.  New  Jersey  settled  at  Elizabethtown. 

1664.  New  Netherland  seized  by  the  Eng 
lish;  New  Amsterdam  renamed 
New  York. 

1668.  Sainte  Marie,  Michigan,  settled  by 

the  French. 

1669.  La  Salle   discovers   the  Ohio  and 

Illinois  Rivers. 

1670.  South  Carolina   settled   on  Ashley 

River. 
1673.  Marquette  explores  the  Mississippi 

to  Arkansas  River. 
1675-76.  King  Philip's  War. 

567 


568 


SUMMARY   OF   CHRONOLOGY. 


1676.  Bacon's  Rebellion  in  Virginia. 
1680.  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  settled. 
1682.  La  Salle  explores  the  Mississippi. 

1682.  William  Penn  visits  America. 

1683.  Philadelphia  founded. 

1686-89.  The  Andros  tyranny  in  New  Eng 
land. 
1692.  The  Salem  witchcraft. 

1692.  William  and  Mary  College  founded 

in  Virginia. 

1693.  Rice  culture  begun  in  South  Caro 

lina. 

1701.  Yale  College  founded. 

1702.  Mobile  settled  by  the  French. 

1704.  The  Boston  News  Letter  (first  news 
paper  in  America). 

1718.  New  Orleans  founded  by  the  French. 

1729.  Carolina  divided  into  North  and 
South  Carolina. 

1729   Baltimore  founded. 

1733.  Georgia  settled  at  Savannah. 

1741.  Indigo  culture  begun  in  South  Caro 
lina. 

1745.  Louisburg  taken  by  the  British. 

1753.  Washington's  mission  to  the  French 

forts. 

1754.  The  French  and  Indian  War  begins. 
1754  Convention  of  the  colonies  at  Al 
bany. 

1755.  Braddock's  defeat. 

1755.  Expulsion  of  the  Acadians. 

1757.  Massacre  at  Fort  William  Henry. 

1758.  Washington  takes  Fort  Duquesne. 

1758.  Louisburg  taken. 

1759.  Wolfe  captures  Quebec. 
1763.  Treaty  of  peace  signed. 
1763-64.  Pontiac's  war. 
1765.  The  Stamp  Act  passed. 

1765.  The  "Stamp  Act  Congress"  meets. 

1766.  The  Stamp  Act  repealed. 

1767.  Duties  laid  on  tea  and  other  arti 

cles. 

1768.  British  troops  enter  Boston. 
1770.  The  Boston  massacre. 
1773.  Tea  sent  to  American  ports. 

1773.  The  Boston  "Tea  Party,"  December 

16. 

1774.  The  port  of  Boston  closed. 

1774.  The  First  Continental  Congress  meets 

at  Philadelphia,  September  5. 

1775.  Battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord, 

April  19. 


1775.  Ethan  Allen  takes  Ticonderoga,  May 

10. 
1775.  The   Second  Continental   Congress 

meets,  May  10. 
1775.  Washington   made   commander-in- 

chief,  June  15. 
1775.  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June  17. 

1775.  The  assault  and  repulse  at  Quebec, 

December  31. 

1776.  The  British  evacuate  Boston,  March 

17. 
1776.  The  Declaration  of  Independence, 

July  4. 

1776.  Battle  of  Long  Island,  August  27. 
1776.  Washington  retreats  across  New  Jer- 

sey,  November  19  to  December  8. 

1776.  Victory  at  Trenton,  December  26. 

1777.  Victory  at  Princeton,  January  3. 
1777.  The  battle  of  Oriskany,  August  6. 
1777.  The  battle  of  Bennington,  August 

16. 

1777.  The  battle  of  the  Brandywine,  Sep 
tember  11. 

1777.  The  British  army  occupy  Philadel 
phia,  September  26. 

1777.  The  victory  at  Saratoga,  October  7. 

1777.  Surrender  of  Burgoyne,  October  17. 

1777.  Washington  goes  into  winter  quar 

ters  at  Valley  Forge,  December  11. 

1778.  Treaty   of   Alliance   with   France, 

February  6. 

1778.  Philadelphia  evacuated,  June  18. 
1778.  Battle  of  Monmouth,  June  28. 
1778.  Massacre  of  Wyoming,  July  3,  4. 

1778.  Savannah  taken  by  the  British,  De 

cember  29. 

1779.  Wayne  captures  Stony  Point,  July  16. 

1779.  Paul  Jones  captures  the  Serapis,  Sep 

tember  23. 

1780.  The  British  take  Charleston,  May  12. 
1780.  Gates  defeated  at  Camden,  August 

16. 
1780.  Arnold's  treason,  September. 

1780.  Victory  at  King's  Mountain,  Octo 

ber  7. 

1781.  The     Articles     of    Confederation 

adopted. 

1781.  Greene's  campaign  in  the  Carolinas. 
1781.  Surrender  of  Cornwallis,  October  19. 
1783  Treaty  of  peace  signed,  September  3. 
1783.  New  York  evacuated,  November  25. 
1786.  Shays's  rebellion  in  Massachusetts. 


SUMMARY  OF   CHRONOLOGY. 


569 


1787.  Constitutional  Convention  meets  at 

Philadelphia,  May  25. 
1787.  The  Constitution  adopted  and 

signed,  September  17. 
1778.  The  Constitution  ratified,  June  21. 

1789.  Washington  inaugurated  President, 

April  30. 

1790.  Philadelphia  selected  as  the  capital 

for  ten  years. 

1790.  The  first  census  taken. 

1791.  Vermont  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1791.  United  States  Bank  established. 

1792.  United  States  Mint  established. 
1792.  Second  election  of  Washington. 
1792.  Captain  Gray  discovers  the  Columbia 

River. 

1792.  Kentucky  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1793.  Whitney  invents  the  cotton-gin. 

1794.  The  Whiskey  Rebellion. 

1794.  Wayne  defeats  the  Indians. 

1795.  Jay's  treaty  with  Great  Britain  rati 

fied. 

1796.  Tennessee  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1797.  John  Adams  inaugurated. 

1798.  Naval  war  with  France. 

1798.  The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws. 

1799.  Death  of  Washington,  December  14. 

1800.  The  city  of  Washington  becomes  the 

national  capital. 

1801.  Thomas  Jefferson  inaugurated. 
1801.  War  with  Tripoli  declared. 
1803.  Ohio  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1803.  The  purchase  of  Louisiana. 

1804.  The  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition. 
1804.  Second  election  of  Jefferson. 

1804.  Burr  kills  Hamilton  in  a  duel. 

1805.  The  war  with  Tripoli  ends. 
1807.  Burr  tried  for  treason. 

1807.  Fulton  invents  the  steamboat. 
1807.  The  Leopard  fires  into  the  Chesa 
peake. 

1807.  The  Embargo  Act  passed. 

1808.  The  slave-trade  abolished. 

1809.  James  Madison  inaugurated. 
1809.  The  Non-Intercourse  Act. 

1811.  The  battle  of  Tippecanoe. 

1812.  Louisiana  admitted  to  the  Union. 
1812.  War  declared  against  Great  Britain, 

June  19. 

1812.  Hull  surrenders  Detroit,  August  16. 
1812.  The  Constitution  captures  the  Guer- 

riere,  August  19. 


1812.  Various  other  naval  victories. 

1812.  Madison  re-elected  President. 

1813.  Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie,  Sep 

tember  10. 

1813.  Battle  of  the  Thames,  October  5. 

1814.  Jackson  defeats  the  Creeks  at  Toho- 

peka,  March  27. 

1814.  Battle  of  Chippewa,  July  5. 
1814.  Battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  July  25. 
1814.  Washington  captured  by  the  British, 

August  24. 
1814.  Battle    of    Lake    Champlain    and 

Plattsburg,  September  11. 
1814.  Hartford  Convention,  December  15. 

1814.  Treaty  of  Peace  signed,  December  24 . 

1815.  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  January  8. 

1815.  War  with  Algiers. 

1816.  A  new  United   States  Bank  estab 

lished. 

1816.  Indiana  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1817.  James  Monroe  inaugurated. 
1817.  First  Seminole  War. 

1817.  Mississippi  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1818.  Illinois  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1819.  Alabama  admitted  to  the  Union. 
1819.  The  first  steamship— the  Savannah- 
crosses  the  ocean. 

1819.  Florida  purchased  from  Spain. 

1820.  Re-election  of  Monroe. 

1820.  The  Missouri  Compromise  passed. 

1820.  Maine  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1821.  Missouri  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1823.  The  Monroe  doctrine  stated. 

1824.  Lafayette  visits  the  United  States. 

1825.  Protective  tariff  bill  passed. 
1825.  John  Quincy  Adams  inaugurated. 

1825.  The  Erie  Canal  opened. 

1826.  Jefferson  and  Adams  die,  July  4. 
1826.  The  temperance  reform  begins. 

1828.  New  high  tariff  bill  passed. 

1829.  Andrew  Jackson  inaugurated. 

1829.  Rotation  in  office  instituted. 

1830.  First  steam  railroad,  at  Baltimore. 

1831.  Garrison  starts  the  immediate  aboli 

tion  movement. 

1832.  Jackson  vetoes  the   United   States 

Bank  bill. 

1832.  Suppression     of    the   Nullification 
movement. 

1832.  Jackson  re-elected  President. 

1833.  Compromise  tariff  bill  passed. 
1833.  Chicago  founded. 


570 


SUMMARY   OF  CHRONOLOGY. 


1834.  Rise  of  the  Whig  party. 

1835.  The  second  Seminole  War. 

1836.  Arkansas  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1837.  Martin  Van  Buren  inaugurated. 
1837.  Severe  business  depression. 
1837.  Michigan  admitted  to  the  Union. 
1839.  The  Mormons  settle  Nauvoo. 

1839.  The  American  express  system  be 

gins. 

1840.  The    Sub-Treasury   system    estab 

lished. 

1840.  The  Cunard  line  of  ocean  steamers 

established. 

1841.  William   Henry  Harrison  inaugu 

rated. 
1841.  Death  of  President  Harrison,  April  4. 

1841.  John  Tyler  inaugurated,  April  6. 

1842.  The  Dorr  Rebellion,  Rhode  Island. 
1842.  The  Ashburton  treaty  signed. 
1842.  The  anti-rent  troubles,  New  York. 

1844.  The   first   line   of  telegraph    com 

pleted. 

1845.  James  K.  Polk  inaugurated. 
1845.  Florida  admitted  to  the  Union. 
1845.  Bill  for  the  annexation  of  Texas 

signed. 

1845.  The  anaesthetic  qualities   of  ether 
discovered. 

1845.  Texas  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1846.  Oregon  boundary  settled  by  treaty. 
1846.  Iowa  admitted  to  the  Union. 
1846.  Battle  of  Palo  Alto,  May  8. 

1846.  War  declared  against  Mexico,  May 

13. 
1846.  Monterey  taken,  September  24. 

1846.  California   and    New  Mexico  con 

quered. 

1847.  Battle  of  Buena  Vista,  February  23. 
1847.  The  city  of  Mexico  taken,  Septem 
ber  14. 

1847.  The  Mormons  emigrate  to  Utah. 

1848.  Treaty  of  peace  signed,  February  2. 
1848.  Gold  discovered  in  California. 

1848.  Wisconsin  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1849.  Zachary  Taylor  inaugurated. 

1850.  Death  of  President  Taylor,  July  9. 
1850.  Millard  Fillmore  inaugurated,  July 

10. 
1850.  California  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1850.  Passage  of  Fugitive  Slave  Law. 

1851.  The  Maine  Prohibition  bill  passed. 
1863.  Franklin  Pierce  inaugurated. 


1853.  World's  Fair  at  New  York. 

1854.  Perry's  treaty  with  Japan. 

1854.  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  passed. 

1855.  The  struggle  in  Kansas  begins. 

1856.  Assault  on  Senator  Sumner. 

1856.  Rise  of  the  Republican  party. 

1857.  James  Buchanan  inaugurated. 
1857.  The  Dred  Scott  decision. 

1857.  Business  panic. 

1858.  First  Atlantic  cable  (failed). 

1858.  Minnesota  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1859.  Oregon  admitted  to  the  Union. 
1859.  Discovery  of  silver  in  Nevada. 
1859.  Discovery  of  petroleum  in  Pennsyl 
vania. 

1859.  John  Brown's    raid    on    Harper's 

Ferry. 

1860.  South  Carolina  secedes,  December  20. 

1861.  Abraham  Lincoln  inaugurated. 
1861.  Steamer  Star  of  the  West  fired  upon, 

January  9. 

1861.  Kansas  admitted  to  the  Union,  Jan 
uary  29. 

1861.  Other  States  secede,  January  and 
February. 

1861.  Southern  Confederacy  formed,  Feb 
ruary  4. 

1861.  Jefferson  Davis  elected  President  of 
the  Confederacy,  February  18. 

1861.  Bombardment  and  surrender  of  Fort 
Sumter,  April  12-14. 

1861.  The  President's  call  for  volunteers, 
April  15. 

1861.  Troops  attacked  at  Baltimore,  April 
19. 

1861.  Secession  of  Virginia,  Arkansas,  Ten 
nessee,  and  North  Carolina  (May 
and  June). 

1861.  Battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21. 

1861.  Seizure  of  Mason  and  Slidell,  No 

vember  8. 

1862.  Capture  of  Fort  Henry,  Tennessee, 

February  6. 

1862.  Roanoke  Island  taken,  February  8. 
1862.  Capture  of  Fort  Donelson,  February 

16. 
1862.  Battle    of    Pea    Ridge,   Arkansas, 

March  7,  8. 
1862.  Fight  of  the  Monitor  and  Merrimac, 

March  9. 

1862.  Battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6,  7. 
1862.  Capture  of  Island  No.  10,  April  7. 


SUMMARY  OF  CHRONOLOGY. 


571 


1862.  Capture  of  New  Orleans,  April  25. 

1862.  Yorktown  taken,  May  4. 

1862.  Battle  of  Williamsburg,  May  5. 

1862.  Jackson  drives  Banks  across  the 
Potomac,  May  26. 

1862.  Corinth,  Mississippi,  taken,  May  30. 

1862.  Battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May  31,  June  1. 

1862.  General  Lee  succeeds  Johnston,  June 
3. 

1862.  The  Seven  Days'  battles  at  Rich 
mond,  June  25  to  July  1. 

1862.  Second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August 
29,  30. 

1862.  Jackson  takes  Harper's  Ferry,  Sep 
tember  15. 

1862.  Battle  of  Antietam,  September  17. 

1862.  Battle  of  Fredericksburg,  Virginia, 
December  13. 

1862.  Sherman's  repulse  at  Vicksburg,  De 
cember  29. 

1862.  Battle  of  Murfreesboro',   December 

31,  January2,  1863. 

1863.  Lincoln's  Proclamation  of  Emanci 

pation,  January  1. 

1863.  National  banks  established,  Feb 
ruary  23. 

1863.  Battle  of  Chancellorsville,  May  2,  3. 

1863.  West  Virginia  admitted  to  the  Union, 
June  19. 

1863.  Battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  1-3. 

1863.  Surrender  of  Vicksburg,  July  4. 

1863.  Surrender  of  Port  Hudson,  July  9. 

1863.  Draft  riot  in  New  York,  July  13-16. 

1863.  Battle  of  Chickamauga,  September 
19,20. 

1863.  Battles  at  Chattanooga,  November 
24,25. 

1863.  Siege  of  Knoxville  raised,  Decem 

ber  4. 

1864.  Grant  made  lieutenant-general  and 

commander-in-chief,  March  3. 
1864.  Battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  6. 
1864.  Battle  of  Spottsylvania  Court-House, 

May  8-12. 

1864.  Battle  of  Cold  Harbor,  June  3. 
1864.  The  Kearsarge  sinks  the  Alabama, 

June  19. 
1864.  Sherman's  advance  to  Atlanta,  May 

to  July. 

1864.  Early's  raid  on  Washington  (July). 
1864.  Mine  explosion,  Petersburg,  July  30. 
1864.  Farragut  in  Mobile  Bay,  August  5. 


1864.  Weldon  Railroad  seized,  August  18. 

1864.  Sherman  captures  Atlanta,  Septem 
ber  2. 

1864.  Sheridan's  campaign  against  Early, 
September  and  October. 

1864.  Nevada  admitted  to  the  Union,  Oc 
tober  31. 

1864.  President  Lincoln  re-elected. 

1864.  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea,  Novem 
ber  12  to  December  21. 

1864.  Battle  of  Nashville,  December  15, 16. 

1864.  Sherman  takes  Savannah,  Decem 

ber  21. 

1865.  Fort  Fisher,  North  Carolina,  taken, 

January  15. 

1865.  Sherman  marches  northward. 

1865.  Battle  of  Five  Forks,  Virginia, 
April  1. 

1865.  Capture  of  Petersburg,  April  2. 

1865.  Grant  takes  Richmond,  April  3. 

1865.  Lee  surrenders  his  army,  April  9. 

1865.  President  Lincoln  assassinated, 
April  14. 

1865.  Andrew  Johnson  inaugurated,  April 
15. 

1865.  Johnston  surrenders  his  army,  April 
26. 

1865.  Jefferson  Davis  captured,  May  10. 

1865.  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Con 
stitution. 

1865.  Tennessee  readmitted  to  the  Union. 

1866.  A  successful  Atlantic  cable  laid. 

1867.  Alaska  purchased  from  Russia. 

1867.  Nebraska  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1868.  President  Johnson  impeached ;  ac 

quitted  on  trial. 

1868.  Six  of  the  Southern  States  read 
mitted. 

1868.  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  Con 
stitution. 

1868.  Treaty  with  China. 

1868.  Proclamation  of  Amnesty. 

1869.  Ulysses  S.  Grant  inaugurated. 

1869.  Pacific  Railroad  completed. 

1870.  The  remaining  Southern  States  re 

admitted. 
1870.  The  Weather  Bureau  established. 

1870.  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Con 

stitution. 

1871.  Great  fire  at  Chicago. 

1872.  Great  fire  at  Boston. 

1872.  Settlement  of  the  Alabama  claims. 


572 


SUMMARY    OF    CHRONOLOGY. 


1873.  Severe  business  depression  begins. 

1875.  The  Whiskey  Ring  exposed. 

1876.  The  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Phila 

delphia. 
1876.  Colorado  admitted  to  the  Union. 

1876.  War  with  the  Sioux  Indians. 

1877.  The  Electoral  Commission  formed. 
1877.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  inaugurated. 

1877.  Great  railroad  strike. 

1878.  Yellow  fever  at  the  South. 
1878!  The  Bland  Silver  bill  passed. 

1879.  Resumption    of    specie    payments, 

January  1. 

1881.  James  A.  Garfield  inaugurated. 
1881.  Assassination  of  President  Garfield. 

1881.  Chester  A.  Arthur  inaugurated,  Sep 

tember  19. 

1882.  Great  overflow  of  the  Mississippi. 

1883.  Civil  Service  Reform  bill  passed. 

1884.  New  Orleans  Cotton  Exhibition. 

1885.  Grover  Cleveland  inaugurated. 

1885.  The  Washington   Monument  dedi 

cated. 

1886.  Anarchist  riot  at  Chicago. 

1886.  Presidential  Succession  Act  passed. 

1886.  Great  earthquake  at  Charleston. 

1887.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Act. 

1888.  The  Chinese  Exclusion  Act. 

1889.  Benjamin  Harrison  inaugurated. 
1889.  Opening  of  Oklahoma  to  settlers. 
1889.  The  Johnstown  disaster. 

1889.  The  Pan- American  Congress. 


I8"89.  Four  States  (North  and  South  Da 
kota,  Montana,  and  Washington) 
admitted. 

1890.  The  Sherman  Silver  Purchase  Act 


1890. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 


1893. 
1894. 
1894. 
1896. 
1896. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 


1901. 
1901. 


1901. 
1901. 


Idaho  and  Wyoming  admitted. 

The  McKinley  Tariff  adopted. 

The  Bering  Sea  controversy. 

The  Homestead  riot. 

Great  business  depression. 

Grover  Cleveland's  second  inaugura 
tion. 

The  Columbian  World's  Exhibition 
at  Chicago. 

The  Sherman  Silver  bill  repealed. 

The  Pullman  car  strike. 

Wilson  Tariff  bill  adopted. 

Utah  admitted  to  the  Union. 

Civil  Service  Reform  extended. 

The  Free  Silver  election  contest. 

William  McKinley  inaugurated. 

Sinking  of  the  Maine  and  War 
with  Spain. 

Cuba  set  free  and  Manila  taken. 

Cession  of  Porto  Rico  and  Philip 
pine  Islands  to  the  United  States. 

War  in  the  Philippines. 

William  McKinley  reinaugurated. 

Assassination  of  President  McKin 
ley. 

Theodore  Roosevelt  inaugurated. 

The  Pan-American  Exposition. 


LIST   OF   BOOKS   FOR   REFERENCE. 

The  list  here  given  is  suggestive  only,  and  may  be  greatly  extended  by  those  who 
have  ready  access  to  libraries.  Historical  fiction  and  poetry  may  be  usefully  read  in 
connection  therewith. 


Abbot's  Battle-Fields  of  '61 ;  Blue  Jackets 
of  '76;  Blue  Jackets  of  '61. 

Adams's  History  of  New  England  Federal 
ism. 

American  Statesman  Series  of  Biographies. 

Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  Slates; 
History  of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitu 
tion. 

Benton's  Thirty  Years'  View. 

Biographies  of  American  historical  char 
acters. 

Elaine's  Twenty  Years  of  Congress. 

Bryant  and  Gay's  Popular  History  of  the 
United  States. 

Bryce's  American  Commonwealth. 

Catlin's  North  American  Indians. 

Champlin's  Young  Folks'  History  of  the 
War  for  the  Union. 

Coffin's  Old  Times  in  the  Colonies,  and 
other  historical  works. 

Cooper's  Naval  History. 

Curtis's  Constitutional  History  of  the  United 


Davis's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate 

Government. 

De  Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America. 
Dodge's  Bird's- Eye  View  of  Our  Civil  War. 
Doyle's   The  Puritan  Colonies;    Virginia, 

Maryland,  and  the  Carolinas. 
Drake's  Indian  History  for  Young  Folks. 
Draper's  Civil  War. 

Eggleston's  The  Beginners  of  a  Nation. 
Ellis's  The  Red  Man  and  the  White  Man. 
Fiske's  Discovery  of  America ;  Beginnings 

of  New  England  ;  American  Revolution  ; 

Critical  Period  of  American  History  ;  and 

American  Political  Ideas. 
Frothingham's  Rise  of  the  Republic  of  the 

United  Stales. 


Franklin's  Autobiography. 

Oilman's  American  People. 

Greeley's  American  Conflict. 

Greene's  Historical  View  of  the  American 
Revolution. 

Harper's  First  Century  of  the  Republic. 

Hart's  Epochs  of  American  History ;  Old 
South  Leaflets. 

Higginson's  Larger  History  of  the  United 
States. 

Hildreth's  History  of  the  United  Slates. 

Hinsdale's  The  Old  Northwest. 

Irving's  Life  of  Columbus;  Life  of  Wash 
ington. 

Johnston's  American  Politics;  United 
States. 

Lalor's  Cyclopsedia  of  United  States  History. 

Lewis  and  Clark's  Expedition. 

Lodge's  English  Colonies  in  America. 

Lossing's  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  Revo 
lution;  War  of  1812;  Civil  War. 

McCullough's  Men  and  Measures  of  Half  a 
Century. 

McMaster's  History  of  the  People  of  the 
United  States. 

McPherson's  Political  History  of  Recon 
struction. 

Mead's  American  History  Leaflets. 

Morgan's  League  of  the  Iroquois. 

Morris's  Half-Hours  with  American  History. 

Nichols's  Story  of  the  Great  March. 

Nicolay's  The  Outbreak  of  Rebellion. 

Palfrey's  History  of  New  England. 

Parkman's  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New 
World,  and  other  works  on  the  history 
of  the  French  in  America. 

Parton's  Life  of  Benjamin  Franklin;  Fa 
mous  Americans. 

Pollard's  Lost  Cause. 

573 


574 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  REFERENCE. 


Roosevelt's  The  Naval  War  of  1812;  Win 
ning  of  the  West. 

Schouler's  History  of  the  United  States. 

Schuyler's  Colonial  New  York. 

Scribner's  American  History  Series. 

Scudder's  American  Commonwealth 
Series. 

Sparks's  American  Biography  Series. 

Squier  and  Davis's  American  Antiquities. 

Stephens's  War  between  the  States. 

Swinton's  Army  of  the  Potomac;  Decisive 
Battles  of  the  War. 


Thorpe's  Government  of  the  People  of  the 

United  States. 

Watson's  Annals  of  Philadelphia. 
Watson's  Camp-Fires  of  the  Revolution. 
Weise's  Discovery  of  America  to  the  Year 

1525. 

Williams's  Negro  Race  in  America. 
Wilson's  Slate  and  Federal  Governments  of 

the  United  States. 
Winsor's  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 

America;    Reader's   Hand-Book  of  the 

American  Revolution. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

What  two  discoveries  of  America  were  made  ?  How  did  they  differ 
in  conditions?  What  caused  the  nations  of  Europe  to  seek  a  new 
route  to  India?  What  do  the  years  1000  and  1492  suggest?  What 
discovery  aided  navigation  in  the  fifteenth  century?  What  theories 
were  held  about  the  shape  of  the  earth  ?  What  were  the  results  of 
the  voyages  of  Columbus  ?  Was  Columbus  in  any  way  to  blame  for 
his  ill-treatment?  Who  were  the  first  English  explorers?  What 
parts  of  the  continent  did  the  Spanish  settle?  The  French?  The 
English  ?  What  were  the  leading  purposes  of  each  ? 

Why  were  the  natives  named  Indians?  What  relation  did  the 
Mound-Builders  bear  to  the  modern  Indians  ?  What  was  the  character 
of  the  Indian  government?  Name  the  Indian  families  east  of  the 
Mississippi.  What  were  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  Indians  ? 
What  was  the  effect  of  Champlain's  attack  on  the  Iroquois  ?  Where 
are  the  Indians  settled  now  ?  How  many  are  there  ? 

Name  a  noted  discoverer  and  discovery  of  each  nation  in  America. 
Describe  an  important  discovery.  Why  was  the  continent  named 
America?  What  events  are  suggested  by  the  names  St.  Augustine, 
Jamestown,  Quebec?  By  the  names  Columbus,  John  Smith,  John 
Winthrop,  Miles  Standish?  Upon  what  did  England  rest  her  claim 
to  American  territory?  What  caused  the  decline  in  Spanish  enter 
prise  ?  What  region  was  named  Acadia  ?  What  was  its  original  and 
what  its  later  extent?  Why  did  Raleigh's  colonies  prove  failures? 
Why  PophanTs?  What  was  the  purpose  of  Frobisher?  Of  Hudson? 
Why  was  it  important  to  find  a  new  route  to  Asia  ?  By  whom  was  it 
learned  that  America  is  a  separate  continent  ?  How  ? 

Has  a  northwest  passage  io  Asia  ever  been  discovered?  Is  it  of  any 
use  to  commerce  ?  Where  may  geographical  discovery  still  be  sought  ? 
Is  the  discovery  of  America  yet  complete  ?  How  did  the  Spanish  treat 
the  Indians?  How  the  English  and  French?  Why  did  Menendez 
treat  the  French  colonists  so  cruelly  ?  What  historical  events  gather 
about  the  site  of  Ticonderoga  ? 

What  do  you  know  about  the  American  fisheries  ?  What  fish  and 
other  animals  are  sought?  What  are  the  principal  localities  of  the 

575 


576  QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW. 

fisheries?  From  what  animals  are  furs  obtained?  What  historical 
results  arose  from  the  fur-trade  ?  What  trouble  has  arisen  about  the 
fur  seal  ? 

Where  was  the  first  English  settlement  made  ?  The  second  ?  How 
did  these  two  settlements  differ  in  character?  What  system  of  prop 
erty-holding  was  first  established  at  Jamestown  and  Plymouth  ?  What 
brought  it  to  an  end?  Why  were  slaves  of  value  to  the  settlers? 
What  are  the  chief  objections  to  slavery  ?  Does  it  now  exist  in  any 
civilized  nation?  Where  may  slavery  now  be  found?  Why  was 
the  apprentice  system  founded?  What  became  of  the  apprentices 
when  set  free?  What  do  the  dates  1619,  1787,  1808  suggest  about 
slavery  ? 

How  did  the  English  colonial  governments  differ  from  the  French 
and  Spanish  ?  What  was  the  system  of  government  in  England  ? 
Where  was  the  first  representative  assembly  established  in  America  ? 
The  second  ?  Did  the  English  kings  favor  free  government  in  America  ? 
What  kings  sought  to  overthrow  it  ?  Where  was  the  first  confederacy 
formed?  For  what  purpose ?  What  were  Governor  Berkeley's  views 
about  free  education  ?  What  those  of  the  Puritans  ?  Was  Berkeley 
right  in  calling  Bacon  a  rebel  ?  What  is  a  rebel  ? 

What  is  now  the  usual  route  from  Europe  to  Asia?  What  new 
route  may  be  opened  in  the  future  ?  (via  Panama  and  Nicaragua  Canals.) 
What  reasons  induced  Englishmen  to  emigrate  to  America  in  early 
times  ?  Why  was  Massachusetts  so  rapidly  settled  ?  Did  the  English 
kings  demand  any  return  for  their  grants  of  land  ?  Name  some  in 
stances.  What  was  the  first  colony  within  the  United  States  limits  ? 
The  second?  The  third?  The  fourth?  Does  a  new  country  call  for 
harder  work  than  an  older  one?  Why?  Name  some  things  which 
the  whites  obtained  from  the  Indians ;  the  Indians  from  the  whites. 
What  classes  of  settlers  were  there  ?  From  what  class  of  settlers  did 
Washington  descend  ? 

What  were  the  ideas  of  religious  liberty  at  the  time  of  Charles  I.? 
What  are  they  to-day  ?  What  were  the  religious  views  of  the  Puri 
tans?  What  those  of  the  Pilgrims?  How  did  Roger  Williams  differ 
in  opinion  from  the  Puritans  ?  What  is  meant  by  intolerance  in  re 
ligion  ?  What  was  Roger  Williams's  idea  of  religious  tolerance  ?  What 
Lord  Baltimore's  ?  What  made  the  Puritans  bitter  against  the  Quakers  ? 
How  did  the  Quakers  triumph  over  persecution  ? 

Who  were  the-regicides  ?  Why  did  Charles  II.  annul  the  charter  of 
Massachusetts?  What  rights  were  lost?  What  colonies  kept  their 


QUESTIONS  FOR   REVIEW.  577 

charters?  Tell  the  story  of  Charter  Oak.  Why  has  Rhode  Island  two 
capitals?  Why  had  Connecticut?  What  is  meant  by  Navigation 
Laws  ?  Why  were  these  laws  not  obeyed  ?  Is  it  ever  right  to  disobey 
laws  ?  When  ?  Did  England  find  the  New  England  colonies  easy  to 
govern  ?  What  kind  of  government  did  they  establish  ?  What  events 
are  suggested  by  the  names  Plymouth,  Salem,  Boston,  New  Amster 
dam  ?  How  came  New  Netherland  to  be  named  New  York  ?  Tell 
about  the  estates  of  the  patroons.  What  was  done  about  the  pirates  ? 
Was  Jacob  Leisler  treated  justly?  In  what  way  did  William  Penn 
have  less  power  than  Lord  Baltimore  ?  What  was  the  purpose  of 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line?  Did  it  separate  all  the  free  and  slave 
States? 

What  colonies  were  tolerant  in  religion  from  principle?  What 
forced  to  become  tolerant  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  state  church  ?  What 
three  religious  sects  refrained  from  persecution?  What  sects  were 
intolerant?  Why  is  the  word  New  added  to  so  many  American 
names  ?  Why  did  Manhattan  Island  sell  so  cheaply  in  1626  ?  What 
idea  have  you  of  its  value  to-day?  What  is  meant  by  hereditary 
right  ?  Has  there  ever  been  a  nobility  in  America  ?  Can  any  Ameri 
can  have  a  title  of  nobility?  Why  not?  What  were  the  large  cities 
of  colonial  times?  When  was  each  founded,  and  by  whom?  Name 
some  of  our  largest  cities  to-day.  What  historic  buildings  exist  in 
Philadelphia  ?  In  Boston  ?  In  New  York  ?  How  do  our  cities  com 
pare  in  age  with  those  of  Europe  ?  Who  were  the  dissenters  ?  Who 
the  Huguenots  ?  Did  any  Huguenots  settle  in  the  French  and  Spanish 
colonies  ?  Why  not  ?  Where  did  the  Scotch-Irish  come  from  ?  What 
was  the  condition  of  debtors  in  Oglethorpe's  time?  By  what  classes 
of  people  was  Georgia  settled  ?  How  did  the  various  colonies  treat  the 
Indians  ?  By  which  proprietaries  were  they  treated  justly  ? 

What  colonies  were  founded  under  proprietaries?  What  under 
charters  ?  What  under  royal  government  ?  In  what  did  these  classes 
of  colonies  differ  ?  WTiat  was  the  greatest  extent  of  New  France  ? 
What  territory  did  Spain  hold  within  the  United  States  region  ?  How 
far  west  did  the  English  grants  of  land  go?  On  what  did  the  English 
base  their  claims  ?  On  what  did  the  French  ?  In  what  way  did  Irdian 
wars  differ  from  white  wars  ?  What  justification  had  the  Englif.h  in 
the  expulsion  of  the  Acadians  ? 

What  wars  took  place  between  the  English  and  French?  What 
results  came  from  the  first  three  wars  ?  What  gave  rise  to  the  French 
and  Indian  War?  Describe  Braddock's  campaign.  Where  was  the 

37 


578  QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

decisive  battle  fought  ?  What  was  the  result  of  this  war  ?  What  new 
arrangements  of  territory  took  place  ?  How  did  this  war  prepare  the 
colonies  for  the  Revolutionary  War  ?  What  nations  successively  pos 
sessed  New  York  ?  What  nations  the  lands  on  the  Delaware  ?  Describe 
the  Swedish  settlement  of  1638.  How  did  it  end  ?  Where  was  Fort 
Duquesne?  What  made  its  location  important?  Where  was  Fort 
Ticonderoga  ? 

What  is  meant  by  a  stamp  act?  Why  is  it  a  convenient  form  of 
taxation  ?  Why  did  America  object  to  being  taxed  by  England  ?  What 
principal  provocations  drove  the  colonies  to  rebellion  ?  Why  was  the 
tea  rejected?  Why  did  the  Revolutionary  War  begin  in  Massachu 
setts?  Describe  Paul  Revere 's  ride.  What  was  its  result?  What 
events  led  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence?  Who  wrote  it?  What 
was  the  result  of  its  adoption  ?  What  causes  led  to  the  Constitution  ? 
What  objections  were  made  to  it?  What  rights  does  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  claim  for  all  men  ?  What  does  it  say  on  the  sources 
of  government?  How  many  Continental  Congresses  were  there? 
What  was  done  by  the  first  ?  What  by  the  second  ?  How  does  the 
organization  of  the  present  Congress  'compare  with  that  of  the  Conti 
nental  Congress  ?  Why  were  the  Articles  of  Confederation  unsatisfac 
tory  ?  Why  was  a  new  Constitution  necessary  ?  Is  there  any  author 
ity  higher  than  the  Constitution  ?  Can  State  laws  and  Federal  laws 
conflict  ?  What  body  decides  if  laws  are  constitutional  ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  American  cause  in  December,  1776? 
What  event  changed  this  condition?  Describe  the  taking  of  New 
York;  of  Philadelphia.  What  was  the  purpose  of  Burgoyne's  cam 
paign?  What  effect  did  his  capture  have  on  Europe?  Why  were 
Hessian  soldiers  hired  by  England  ?  How  did  the  Americans  regard 
them  ?  Which  were  the  leading  battles  of  the  Revolution  ?  How  was 
Washington  treated?  Wherein  was  Washington  especially  great? 
What  important  plan  did  the  British  seek  to  carry  out  in  the  North  ? 
How  was  the  war  conducted  in  the  South  ?  What  induced  Arnold  to 
turn  traitor  ?  What  led  to  the  capture  of  Cornwallis  ?  What  was  the 
financial  condition  of  the  country  in  the  Revolution  ? 

Name  the  compacts  or  state  papers  connected  with  1620,  1776,  1787. 
1863.  Who  were  the  Tories?  What  did  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill 
teach  the  British  ?  Give  three  important  incidents  in  the  life  of  Wash 
ington.  Why  were  the  Massachusetts  militia  called  minute-men? 
State  some  of  the  leading  features  of  the  Constitution.  How  did  the 
Cabinet  originate  ?  Who  were  the  leaders  in  the  Constitutional  Con- 


QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW.  579 

vention  ?  To  what  great  series  of  state  papers  did  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution  give  rise  ? 

What  part  of  the  continent  did  the  United  States  originally  embrace  ? 
What  does  it  now  embrace  ?  What  was  the  Northwestern  Territory  ? 
How  obtained  ?  Into  what  States  divided  ?  What  department  of  the 
government  has  charge  of  foreign  affairs  ?  What  was  the  latest  de 
partment  instituted  ?  Which  department  has  charge  of  Indian  affairs  ? 
01  the  signal  service  ?  Name  three  acts  of  England  that  led  to  the 
Revolution.  Who  were  the  most  prominent  statesmen  in  the  Constitu 
tional  Convention?  What  were  the  principles  of  the  Anti-Federal 
party?  What  of  the  Federal?  What  events  are  suggested  by  the 
names  of  Franklin?  Hamilton?  Jefferson?  Of  Saratoga?  Detroit? 
Gettysburg? 

State  some  fact  about  financial  affairs  in  Washington's  administra 
tion.  In  Jackson's.  What  can  you  say  about  the  Louisiana  purchase? 
What  were  the  causes  of  the  war  of  1812  ?  Could  it  have  been  honor 
ably  averted?  What  is  meant  by  right  of  search?  What  was  the 
purpose  of  the  embargo?  How  did  it  work?  How  did  Napoleon 
treat  this  country?  Why  was  war  declared  against  England  rather 
than  France?  Where  was  the  war  of  1812  principally  fought?  Why 
had  the  United  States  such  success  on  the  sea?  What  caused  the 
failures  of  the  first  year  of  the  war  ?  What  excuse  did  the  English 
give  for  burning  Washington  ?  What  were  the  results  of  the  war  of 
1812?  Name  some  evils  of  war.  Some  benefits.  How  can  nations 
avoid  war?  What  conditions  indicate  high  civilization?  What  in 
dicate  low  ?  What  have  been  the  causes  of  most  of  our  Indian  wars  ? 
Were  the  whites  just  to  the  Indians  in  the  past?  Are  they  to-day? 

When  was  the  first  United  States  bank  established?  When  the 
second  ?  Why  did  Jackson  veto  the  bank  charter  ?  What  President 
was  elected  without  a  contest?  What  was  meant  by  the  "  era  of  good 
feeling"?  What  parties  were  there  before  1820?  What  caused  the 
decline  of  the  Federal  party  ?  What  party  advocated  internal  improve 
ments  ?  What  great  road  was  built  by  the  government  ?  What  great 
water-way  by  the  State  of  New  York  ?  How  was  the  opening  of  the 
Erie  Canal  announced  to  New  York  City  ?  What  effect  had  the  Erie 
Canal  on  commerce  ?  What  important  event  is  associated  with  the 
4th  of  July,  1826  ?  What  other  President  died  on  the  4th  of  July  ? 

What  was  the  Missouri  Compromise?  Name  a  statesman  connected 
with  it.  What  was  the  purpose  of  the  Liberator  newspaper  ?  By 
whom  published?  What  is  meant  by  the  "spoils  system"?  What 


580  QUESTIONS  FOR   REVIEW. 

was  the  condition  of  office-holding  before  Jackson's  administration? 
What  afterward?  What  causes  led  to  the  panic  of  1838?  What  great 
business  depressions  has  this  country  experienced  ?  What  led  to  the 
Mexican  War  ?  Which  were  its  principal  campaigns  ?  Did  the  Mexi 
cans  win  any  battles?  What  great  territorial  acquisition  did  the 
United  States  obtain  ?  What  portion  of  this  territory  proved  the  most 
valuable  ?  Why  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  Gadsden  Purchase  ?  Why 
was  it  made  ?  What  was  the  Wilmot  Proviso  ?  Which  Presidents  died 
in  office  ?  Which  were  assassinated  ? 

What  was  the  tariff  law  of  1828  ?  In  whose  administration  made  ? 
To  what  action  did  it  give  rise  in  South  Carolina?  How  was  this 
trouble  ended?  By  whom?  What  is  a  tariff?  What  revenue  for 
protection  ?  What  free  trade  ?  Is  there  any  tariff  between  the  States  ? 
What  party  sustains  a  protective  tariff?  What  tariff  for  revenue?  Is 
there  direct  taxation  in  the  United  States?  Against  what  levied?  Do 
the  people  who  have  no  property  pay  any  tax  ?  In  what  form  ?  What 
privilege  does  it  give  them?  Tell  how  our  Northern  boundary  was 
settled.  By  what  various  means  did  the  United  States  acquire  terri 
tory  ?  What  compromise  was  made  in  the  admission  of  California  ? 
What  were  the  effects  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  ?  What  was  the  plat 
form  of  the  Know-Nothing  party?  Define  the  Dred  Scott  decision. 
What  is  meant  by  squatter  sovereignty?  When  did  the  Republican 
party  arise?  What  were  its  principles?  What  gave  rise  to  the 
troubles  in  Kansas?  What  can  you  say  about  the  ownership  of 
Florida?  What  internal  improvements  are  provided  for  by  the  United 
States  ?  What  by  individuals  ?  For  what  purposes  is  the  revenue  of 
the  United  States  expended?  What  are  the  objections  to  the  spoils 
system?  Should  offices  be  given  as  political  rewards?  Why  not? 
What  is  a  veto  ?  Does  it  necessarily  defeat  a  bill  ?  What  kinds  of 
money  have  the  United  States  issued? 

Why  were  compromises  on  the  slavery  question  important?  What 
compromises  were  made?  Did  they  avert  the  difficulty?  What  was 
the  purpose  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  ?  What  its  effect  ?  What  is 
meant  by  the  Underground  Railroad?  Why  did  runaway  slaves  seek 
Canada?  What  was  the  first  political  party  that  opposed  slavery? 
On  what  did  the  South  base  the  right  to  secede  ?  Has  the  power  that 
made  the  United  States  the  right  to  dissolve  it?  What  were  the  imme 
diate  causes  of  the  Civil  War?  What  effect  had  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter  ?  What  is  meant  by  drafting  men  for  an  army  ?  Why  is  it 
unpopular?  What  violence  did  the  draft  law  occasion  in  New  York? 


QUESTIONS  FOR   REVIEW.  581 

Why  did  the  South  suffer  more  than  the  North  in  the  war?  In  what 
cases  did  the  North  suffer  from  invasion  ? 

What  was  the  purpose  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  ?  Name  its  suc 
cessive  commanders.  A  battle  under  each  and  its  result.  State  in 
order  the  four  great  wars  of  the  United  States.  Some  important  ques 
tion  involved  in  each.  What  was  settled  by  each?  What  is  State 
sovereignty  ?  What  squatter  sovereignty  ?  What  nations  of  Europe 
recognized  the  Confederates  as  belligerents?  What  privileges  does 
such  recognition  confer?  State  some  event  connected  with  Balti 
more,  Harper's  Ferry,  Charleston,  Savannah,  during  the  war.  What 
was  the  purpose  of  John  Brown's  raid  ?  What  the  result? 

How  did  President  Buchanan  act  toward  the  seceded  States?  How 
President  Lincoln?  Describe  the  national  influence  of  Lincoln,  Sum- 
ner,  Clay,  Webster,  Calhoun.  Of  the  Louisiana  purchase.  Name 
three  prominent  generals  and  three  statesmen  of  the  Confederacy. 
Name  the  generals  of  the  Civil  War  who  became  Presidents. 

What  was  the  Webster- Ashburton  treaty  ?  How  was  Texas  acquired  ? 
Florida  ?  Oregon  ?  Alaska  ?  Name  an  American  statesman  connected 
with  the  Missouri  Compromise ;  Wilmot  Proviso ;  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill ;  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  How  were  lands  acquired  from  the  Indians  ? 
What  was  done  with  the  Indians  of  the  South  ?  What  gave  rise  to  the 
Seminole  War?  The  Pontiac?  The  Black  Hawk?  Where  are  the 
Indians  now  principally  located  ?  Under  what  conditions  and  organi 
zation  ? 

Where  was  the  first  great  battle  of  the  Civil  War  ?  What  its  result  ? 
Where  was  the  first  battle  of  ironclads  fought  ?  How  did  these  iron 
clads  differ?  What  was  the  result?  What  first  made  General  Grant 
famous?  How  did  he  succeed  in  capturing  Vicksburg?  How  was 
New  Orleans  taken  ?  What  great  battles  took  place  near  Chattanooga  ? 
In  what  battle  was  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  killed  ?  In  what  Stonewall 
Jackson  ?  What  was  the  result  of  the  second  Bull  Run  battle  ?  What 
of  the  battle  of  Antietam  ?  When  was  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  fought  ? 
How  long  did  it  continue  ?  What  were  its  results  ?  What  route  did 
McClellan  take  for  the  siege  of  Richmond  ?  What  was  the  result  of 
his  campaign  ?  What  route  did  General  Grant  take  ?  What  great 
battles  did  he  fight?  What  city  did  he  besiege  ?  What  was  the  route 
of  General  Sherman's  march  ?  How  far  did  it  extend  ?  Why  was 
Richmond  evacuated?  When  and  where  did  General  Lee  surrender? 
When  was  Lincoln  assassinated  ?  What  was  the  purpose  of  the  assas 
sins? 


582  QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW. 

What  was  the  purpose  of  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  ?  What 
the  object  of  the  thirteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution  ?  The  four 
teenth?  The  fifteenth?  What  was  the  Tenure  of  Office  act?  The  Civil 
Rights  bill?  Why  was  President  Johnson  impeached?  What  body 
conducted  the  impeachment  trial?  What  was  the  result? 

When  was  the  first  Pacific  Railroad  laid  ?  When  the  first  ocean 
telegraph?  How  many  of  each  are  there  to-day?  What  is  meant  by 
specie  payment  ?  When  has  it  been  suspended  in  American  history  ? 
Why  ?  Is  paper  money  real  money  ?  What  gives  it  value  ?  Why  did 
the  Continental  currency  lose  value  ?  How  did  Union  victories  affect 
the  price  of  gold  ?  To  what  premium  did  gold  rise  during  the  war  ? 
When  was  specie  payment  resumed  ?  What  was  the  highest  United 
States  debt  ?  What  is  the  debt  to-day  ? 

What  is  meant  by  treason?  Is  war  as  cruel  now  as  of  old?  Is 
private  property  more  respected  ?  Why  did  the  United  States  object 
to  the  French  invasion  of  Mexico?  What  American  policy  did  it 
violate  ?  What  gave  rise  to  the  Monroe  Doctrine  ?  On  what  great 
occasions  has  it  been  applied  ?  Why  was  it  wrong  for  Great  Britain  to 
let  the  Alabama  sail?  What  injury  was  done  to  our  commerce? 
What  was  the  purpose  of  the  Alabama  arbitration  ?  How  much  did 
Great  Britain  pay  for  her  fault  ?  How  much  did  the  United  States  pay 
on  account  of  the  fisheries  ? 

What  objections  are  there  to  universal  suffrage  ?  What  arguments 
in  its  favor  ?  What  was  the  purpose  of  the  Electoral  Commission  of 
1877?  From  what  bodies  was  it  taken ?  What  was  the  result?  What 
is  meant  by  Civil  Service  Reform?  In  whose  administration  did  it 
begin  ?  When  and  why  was  President  Garfield  assassinated  ?  What 
has  been  the  result  of  the  Civil  Service  Reform  movement?  What 
large  body  of  office-holders  are  still  appointed  by  the  President  ?  How 
many  Presidents  have  served  two  terms  ?  How  did  Cleveland's  two 
terms  differ  from  those  of  the  others?  How  many  Presidents  were 
military  men?  How  many  were  civilians?  What  important  tariff 
changes  have  taken  place  since  1860?  What  great  tracts  of  land  have 
been  set  aside  by  the  United  States  as  public  parks  ?  Why  ?  What  is 
the  purpose  of  forestry  reservations  ? 

What  different  systems  of  government  existed  in  the  colonies? 
What  was  Franklin's  plan  of  union  ?  What  Congresses  were  held  in 
colonial  times  ?  What  were  the  defects  of  the  Articles  of  Confedera 
tion  ?  To  what  danger  did  these  give  rise  ?  How  was  this  danger 
avoided  in  the  Constitution?  What  are  the  three  branches  of  the 


QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW.  583 

present  government  ?  The  duties  and  powers  of  each  ?  What  govern 
mental  departments  are  there  ?  Who  are  the  Cabinet  officials  ?  Who 
the  successors  of  the  President  in  case  of  death  ?  What  do  you  know 
of  the  progress  of  American  finance  ?  What  of  the  postal  system  ? 
Who  was  the  first  Postmaster-General  ?  At  what  rate  has  immigration 
grown?  Why  are  many  of  the  present  immigrants  undesirable  ?  Why 
were  the  Chinese  excluded  ?  What  led  to  the  rapid  settlement  of  the 
West?  What  of  the  Pacific  slope  ?  How  have  means  of  transportation 
developed  ?  What  great  invention  was  made  in  the  eighteenth  century  ? 
What  have  been  the  leading  inventions  of  the  nineteenth  century  ?  At 
what  rate  has  the  population  increased  ?  How  did  the  population  in 
1790  compare  with  that  in  1890? 


INDEX. 


A. 

Abolition  movement,  304,  320,  340,  490. 

Acadia,  settlement  in,  50;  capture  of, 
148. 

Acadians,  expulsion  of  the,  160. 

Adams,  John,  184,  201,  232 ;  adminis 
tration  of,  256. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  administration  of, 
295. 

Adams,  Samuel,  186,  188,  191. 

Agriculture,  conditions  of,  515,  518. 

Aguinaldo,  461,  463. 

Alabama  admitted,  291. 

Alabama,  capture  of  the,  402 ;  claims 
arbitrated,  419. 

Alaska,  purchase  of,  417  ;  gold  discover 
ed  in,  452  ;  boundary  arbitration,  468. 

Albany,  site  of,  102. 

Albemarle  colony,  122. 

Algiers,  pirates  of,  254;  war  with,  284. 

Alien  and  sedition  laws,  258. 

Allen,  Ethan,  195. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution,  249, 
260,  413,  414,  418,  493. 

America,  discovery  of,  22 ;  named,  25. 

American  commerce,  outrages  on,  271. 

American  party,  337,  484. 

Amnesty  to  South,  416. 

Amusements  in  New  England,  136. 

Anaesthesia  discovered,  318. 

Anarchists,  Chicago,  437. 

Anderson,  Major,  350,  405. 

Andre",  capture  of  Major,  226. 

Andros,  Edmund,  99,  106,  109. 

Animals,  domestic,  517. 

Annapolis,  Nova  Scotia,  50, 148 ;  Mary 
land,  119. 


Anniversary  celebrations,  443. 

Antietam,  battle  of,  377. 

Anti-Masons,  298. 

Anti-renters,  313. 

Appalachian  Indians,  149. 

Apprentice  system,  69,  486. 

Arbitrations,  419. 

Archdale,  John,  125. 

Architecture,  American,  538. 

Arkansas  admitted,  306. 

Armies  of  the  North  and  the  South, 
355 ;  strength  of,  410. 

Army,  disbandment  of,  234;  strength 
of  the,  456;  condition  of,  in  Cuba, 
457. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  198,  203,  215,  216, 
226,  229. 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  elected  Vice-Presi 
dent,  431 ;  becomes  President,  433. 

Artists,  American,  529. 

Assemblies  dissolved,  182. 

Assembly,  the  first,  71,  472. 

Atlanta,  capture  of,  396;  exhibition, 
444. 

Atlantic  telegraph,  417. 

Australian  ballot,  442. 

B. 

Bacon's  rebellion,  76. 

Balboa  discovers  the  Pacific,  27. 

Baltimore  founded,  119;  attacked,  282; 

soldiers  attacked  in,  351. 
Baltimore,  Lord,  116,  119. 
Banks,  General,  on  Red  River,  400. 
Barcelona,  Columbus  at,  23. 
Bennington,  battle  of,  213. 
Bering  Sea  question,  441. 

585 


586 


INDEX. 


Berkeley,  Lord,  108. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  74,  76. 

Black  Hawk  War,  305. 

Elaine,  James  G.,  435. 

Blockade  of  the  South,  351,  353,  354, 
359 ;  of  Cuba,  454  j  of  Santiago,  455. 

Books  for  reference,  list  of,  573. 

Boone,  Daniel,  233. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes,  406. 

Boston  settled,  84;  soldiers  in,  183; 
massacre,  184;  tea-party,  186;  port 
bill,  187;  fortified  by  Gage,  191;  be 
sieged,  193 ;  evacuated,  199 ;  fire, 
421. 

Boundaries  of  nation,  232;  settlement 
of,  314. 

Braddock's  defeat,  158. 

Bradford,  William,  81. 

Bragg,  General,  in  Kentucky,  369;  at 
Chickamauga,  388;  at  Missionary 
Ridge,  389. 

Brandywine,  battle  of,  211. 

British  retreat  from  Concord,  193. 

Brown,  John,  in  Kansas,  336 ;  at  Har 
per's  Ferry,  341. 

Bryan,  William  J.,  450,  462. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  518. 

Buchanan,  James,  administration  of, 
340 ;  inaction  of,  346. 

Buell,  General,  366,  370;  commander- 
in-chief,  376. 

Buena  Vista,  battle  of,  323. 

Bull  Run  battle,  first,  357;  second, 
376. 

Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,  196. 

Burgoyne,  General,  210,  211,  213,  216. 

Burnside,  General,  369 ;  replaces  Mc- 
Clellan,  378;  at  Frederic  ksburg, 
379. 

Burr,  Aaron,  260,  265,  266. 

Business  depression  of  1837,  309;  of 
1857,  343;  of  1873,  425;  of  1893, 
445. 

Butler,  General,  at  New  Orleans,  368. 


c. 

Cabinet,  formation  of  the,  249,  481. 
Cabots,  discoveries  of  the,  26. 
Cabrillo's  voyage,  44. 
Calboun,  John  C.,  273,  297,  301,  333. 
California    explored,    44;     conquered, 

324;  purchased,  326;  emigration  to 

328 ;  progress  of,  329. 
Calverts,  the,  in  Maryland,  116-121. 
Canada,  first  settlement,   48 ;  ceded  to 

England,  168  ;  invaded,  198,  275,  279. 
Canal,  Erie,  292,  509;  Isthmian,  466, 

467. 

Cape  Breton  discovered,  45. 
Cape  Cod,  Pilgrims  at,  79. 
Cape  Verde  squadron,  455 ;  destruction 

of,  458. 
Carolinas,  the,  121-126 ;  divided,  125 ; 

life  in,  143  ;  invaded  by  Indians,  149. 
Carpenters'  Hall,  189. 
Carpet-bag  governments,  415. 
Carteret,  Sir  George,  108. 
Cartier,  Jacques,  46. 
Cass,  Lewis,  329. 
Catholics  in  Maryland,  118-120. 
Census  of  1890,  442;  of  1900,  463. 
Centennial  Exhibition,  426. 
Champlain's  career,  50. 
Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  380. 
Chapultepec  taken,  325. 
Charles  I.,  72,  85,  98. 
Charles  IL,  75,98,  111. 
Charleston  settled,  123;  attacked,  149; 

taken,  224,  403 ;  earthquake,  437. 
Charter  Oak,  100. 
Charter,    Puritan,   84;    Rhode   Island, 

92;  Connecticut,  97;   Pennsylvania, 

111;  Maryland,  117;   Carolina,  122. 
Cherokeee,  305. 
Chesapeake  affair,  the,  268 ;  capture  of 

the,  277. 
Chicago   founded,  306;   fire,  421;   an« 

archists,  447. 


INDEX. 


587 


Chickamauga,  battle  of,  388. 

Chile,  trouble  with,  440. 

China,  treaty  with,  417  ;  troubles  in,  462. 

Chinese  exclusion,  436,  506. 

Christian  Commission,  410. 

Chronology,  summary  of,  507. 

Cincinnati  founded,  242. 

Cities  in  1790,  244,  245. 

Civil  service  reform,  432,  447. 

Claims  of  European  nations,  60. 

Clarendon  colony,  123. 

Clark,  George  R.,  Colonel,  220. 

Clay,  Henry,  273,  291,  296,  297,  302, 

307,  312,  319,  333. 
Clayborne  trouble,  the,  119. 
Cleveland,  Grover,  President,  435 ;  de 
feated,  438 ;  re-elected,  445. 
Cliff-dwellers,  39. 
Clinton,  George,  265,  269. 
Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  218. 
Coal,  use  of,  244;  strike  of  miners,  467. 
Coinage,  colonial,  494 ;  United  States, 

499. 

Cold  Harbor,  battle  of,  392. 
Colfax,  Schuyler,  418. 
Colleges  in  the  colonies,  532,  534. 
Colonies,  diversity  of,  61;  customs  in, 

131-141 ;  rebellion  of,  188. 
Colonists,  Spanish  and  French,   469; 

British,  470  ;    original,  501. 
Colorado  admitted,  426. 
Columbia  River  discovered,  250. 
Columbian  World's  Exhibition,  443. 
Columbus,  Christopher,  17-24. 
Commerce  and  Labor,  Department  of, 

467. 
Commerce,  early,  14,  15,  173 ;    checks 

to,  267,  271 ;  British,  244,  286,  524. 
Committee  of  Correspondence,  188. 
Compromise  tariff,  302;  of  1850,  331. 
Concord,  British  at,  193. 
Confederacy    of    New    England,    98 ; 

Southern,  346. 
Confederation,  articles  of,  478. 


Congress,  Continental,  189,  190,  195; 
weakness  of,  237 ;  first  under  Consti 
tution,  246,  477. 

Connecticut  settled,  94 ;  government  of, 
97;  charter  saved,  100. 

Conscription,  439. 

Constitution  and  Guerriere,  276. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,  540  ; 
compromises  of  the,  239 ;  ratification 
of  the,  240 ;  effect  of,  247 ;  branches 
of  the  government  under  the,  479. 

Constitution  of  Virginia,  71 ;  of  Con 
necticut,  97  ;  first  written,  473. 

Constitutional  convention,  the,  238, 478. 

Continental  Congress,  first,  189,  190; 
second,  195,  477. 

Convention  system,  the,  472. 

Conway  cabal,  the,  217. 

Cookery  in  New  England,  133. 

Copyright  law,  441. 

Corinth,  battle  of,  370. 

Cornwallis,  General,  206,  208,  228-230. 

Coronado's  expedition,  44. 

Cotton-gin,  the,  246,  489,  517. 

Cowpens,  battle  of,  227. 

Coxey  army,  the,  446. 

Credit,  Mobilier,  422. 

Creek  Indian  War,  282. 

Creeks,  removal  of  the,  297. 

Cuba,  discovery  of,  23 ;  war  in,  448  ; 
insurrection  in,  452 ;  starvation  of 
people  of,  452 ;  blockade  of,  454 ;  in 
vasion  of,  456  ;  independence  of,  466 

Cumberland  road,  the,  292. 

Custer,  General,  death  of,  424. 

D. 

Dale,  Governor,  66. 
Davis,  Jefferson,  President  of  the  Con 
federate  States,  346,  349,  406. 
Davis,  John,  54. 
De  Ayllon,  42. 
Debt,  public,  497-499 


588 


INDEX. 


Debtors,  a  colony  of,  127. 

Decatur  destroys  the  Philadelphia,  262. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  the,  202, 

543. 

Deerfield,  massacre  at,  148. 
De  Gourgues's  revenge,  48. 
Delaware,  Lord,  66. 
Delaware,  settlement  of,  116. 
Delaware,    settlements    on    the,    110; 

Washington  crosses  the,  207. 
Demarcation,  line  of,  27. 
Democratic  party,  296,  483. 
De  Monts  in  Acadia,  49. 
De  Narvaez,  Panfilo,  42. 
Departments,  government,  467,  481. 
Deposits  removed,  303. 
De  Soto,  Fernando,  43,  44. 
Detroit,  surrender  of,  274 ;  recapture  of, 

279. 

De  Vaca,  Cabeza,  43. 
Dewey,Commodore,  454;  Admiral,  461. 
Dinwiddie,  Governor,  154. 
Dorr  rebellion,  313. 
Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  344,  345. 
Dover  settled,  92. 
Draft  riot,  410. 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  53. 
Dred  Scot  case,  341,  491. 
Dress  in  New  England,  135  ;  of  Dutch, 

139  j  in  South,  142. 
Drinking  habits,  136,  143. 
Dunmore,  Lord,  200. 
Dustin,  Mrs.,  escape  of,  147. 
Dutch   explorers,  58 ;  in    Connecticut, 

94;  settlements,   102;   church,  104; 

take  New  Sweden,  105,  110 ;  colony, 

138-140. 

E. 

Eads,  J.  B.,  431. 

Early's  raid,  393. 

Earthquake,  Charleston,  437. 

Education,  530. 

Electoral  Commission,  427. 

Electors,  system  of,  479. 


Emancipation  proclamation,  379,  481, 

492. 

Embargo  act,  268. 
Emigrants  to  the  West,  243. 
Emigration,  318,  504. 
Endicott,  John,  83,  86. 
England,  trouble  with,  236,  254. 
English  explorers,  53;  first  colony,  58; 

take  New  Amsterdam,  105. 
Era  of  good  feeling,  286. 
Erie  Canal,  292,  509. 
Ericsson,  John,  306. 
Essex  taken,  the,  278. 
Europe,  mediseval,  11  :  early  commerce 

of,  14. 

European  nations,  claims  of,  60. 
Express  system  organized,  512. 

F. 

Fair  Oaks,  battle  of,  374. 

Farragut,  Admiral,  302,  368,  401. 

Federal  party,  240,  285,  482. 

Federalist,  The,  525. 

Fenian  raid,  416. 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  343. 

Fillmore  elected  Vice-President,  329; 
President,  332 ;  defeated,  339. 

Finance,  colonial,  493 ;  of  Revolution, 
495 ;  Morris  and  Hamilton,  496. 

Financial  measures,  459. 

Fisheries,  521,  522. 

Flag,  American,  214. 

Florida  discovered,  42;  French  in,  47; 
ceded  to  England,  169 ;  ceded  to  Spain, 
232;  purchased,  289;  admitted,  317. 

Forest  preservation,  456,  520,  521. 

Fort  Carolina,  47  ;  Orange,  102  :  Nas 
sau,  102,  108;  Duquesne,  156.  165; 
Necessity,  157  ;  William  Henry,  162, 
163;  Ticonderoga,  162,  163,  195; 
Moultrie,  199;  Washington,  205; 
Lee,  205;  Stanwix,  214;  Sumter, 
346,  359,  405;  Henry,  365;  Donel- 
son,  365;  Pillow,  400;  Fisher,  401. 


INDEX. 


589 


Forts   seized   in   South,  346;  taken  at 

New  Orleans,  367. 
Fountain  of  youth,  41. 
France   loses   her  colonies,  169;  treaty 

with,  217;  hostility  with,  257;  naval 

war,  258. 

Franking  privilege,  422. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  176,  180,  201,  232, 

476,  507,  527. 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  378. 
Freedmen's  Bureau,  413. 
Free  silver  campaign,  450. 
Free-soil  party,  328. 
Fremont,  John  C.,  324,  339,  355. 
French  and  Indian  War,  152;  results 

of,  170. 
French   explorers,  45 ;    claims,   52 ;    in 

Louisiana,  129;  forts,  154;  fleet,  218, 

219,  230. 

Friends  in  Pennsylvania,  110. 
Frobisher's  voyages,  54. 
Frontenac  and  the  Iroquois,  146. 
Fruits,  culture  of,  517. 
Fugitive  slave  law,  332. 
Fulton  invents  the  steamboat,  266,  509. 
Fur  seals,  441. 

Fur  traders  in  New  York,  103. 
Furs,  519. 

G. 

Gadsden  Purchase,  326. 
Gage,  General,  183,  189,  191. 
Garfield,    James    A.,  election    of,  430; 

assassination  of,  432. 
Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  304,  490. 
Gaspee  burned,  the,  184. 
Gates,  General,  216,  224. 
Genet,  French  minister,  253. 
George  III.,  character  of,  172. 
Georgia  settled,  126;  laws  of,  128;  in 
vaded,  151;  Indians  of,  297. 
Germantown  settled,  115;  battle  of,  211. 
Gerry,  Elbridge,  285. 
Gettysburg,  battle  of,  383-385. 
Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  54. 


Gold  discovery,  327,  452;  fever,  328; 
premium  on,  407 ;  reserve,  429. 

Goodyear's  india-rubber,  333. 

Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando,  90. 

Gosnold's  expedition,  56. 

Government,  new,  240 ;  organized,  249 ; 
difficulties  of,  250;  paternal,  470; 
representative,  471 ;  of  colonies,  472, 
413;  departments  of,  481. 

Grand  Model  government,  124. 

Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  first  command  of, 
364;  captures  Forts  Henry  and  Don- 
elson,  365;  at  Shiloh,  367;  captures 
Vicksburg,  386 ;  commands  in  West, 
389 ;  commander-in-chief,  390  ;  plan 
of  campaign,  391;  advance  on  Rich 
mond,  392;  Lee  surrenders  to,  405; 
President,  418;  re-elected,  424;  tomb 
of,  442.  ' 

Gray,  Captain,  discovers  the  Columbia 
River,  250. 

Great  Law  of  Pennsylvania,  112. 

Greeley,  Horace,  425. 

Greene,  General,  in  South,  227-229. 

Greenland  discovered,  12. 

Guilford  Court-House,  battle  of,  228. 

H. 

Hale,  Nathan,  204. 

Halleck,  General  Henry  W.,  355 ;  com 
mander-in-chief,  375. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  238,  249,  251, 
265,  496. 

Hancock,  John,  190,  191,  195,  201. 

Hancock,  General  Winfield  S.,  431. 

Harper's  Ferry,  341,  377. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  President,  438, 
445. 

Harrison,  William  Henry,  272,  275, 
279,  307;  President,  310,  311. 

Hartford  founded,  94 ;  convention,  284. 

Harvard  College,  532. 

Harvey,  Sir  John,  74. 

Haverhill,  massacre  at,  147,  148. 


590 


INDEX. 


Hawaii,  447 ;  annexation  of,  459. 

Hawkins,  Sir  John,  53. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  426;  President, 

427,  428. 

Hayne  supports  nullification,  301. 
Hayti  discovered,  23. 
Helderberg  War,  314. 
Hendricks,  Thomas  A.,  435. 
Hennepin  explores  the  Mississippi,  51. 
Henry,  Patrick,  179,  190. 
Herkirner,  General,  214. 
Hessians  hired,  198. 
Historians,  American,  526. 
Hobart,  Garret  A.,  Vice-President,  449. 
Hobkirk's  Hill,  battle  of,  229. 
Hobson,  Lieutenant,  and  the  Merrimac, 

456. 

Homestead  strike,  443. 
Hood,  General,  at  Atlanta,  396  ;  invades 

Tennessee,  397  ;  defeat  at  Nashville, 

398. 
Hooker,    General,   at    Chancellorsville, 

380  ;  resigns,  382 ;  at  Lookout  Moun 
tain,  389. 

Hospitality,  Southern,  141. 
Houses  in  New  England,  131-134;  in 

New  Amsterdam,  139. 
Houston,  General,  in  Texas,  316. 
Howe,  General,  196,  203,  210. 
Hudson,  Henry,  58. 
Hudson  River  explored,  58. 
Huguenots  in  Florida,  46 ;  in  Carolina, 

123. 

Hull,  General,  surrenders  Detroit,  274. 
Hutchinson,  Anne,  87-92. 

I. 

Iceland,  discovery  of,  12. 
Idaho  admitted,  439. 
Illinois  admitted,  291. 
Immigration,  501,  505,  506. 
Impeachment    of    President    Johnson, 

415. 
Inauguration  of  Washington,  248. 


Independence,  resolution  for,  201 ;  dee- 
laration  of,  202. 

Indian  massacres  in  Virginia,  72-74, 
75;  wars  in  Carolina,  126;  question, 
423. 

Indiana  admitted,  285. 

Indians  named,  23,  28;  enslaved,  25; 
character  and  customs,  28-40  ;  Brad 
ford's  dealing  with,  81 :  Penn's  treaty 
with,  114;  war  with  Western,  252. 

Indigo  cultivated,  124,  516. 

Industrial  exhibitions,  434. 

Industries  of  the  country,  243. 

Inter-State  commerce,  436. 

Intolerable  acts,  the,  187. 

Inventions,  246,  306,  537. 

Iowa  admitted,  326. 

Ironclads,  first  battle  of,  361. 

Iroquois  Indians,  50,  103,  146,  220. 

Irrigation,  519. 

Irving,  Washington,  526. 

Isabella,  Queen,  19,  25. 

Island  No.  10,  366. 

Italy,  trouble  with,  440. 

J- 

Jackson,  Andrew,  282,  283,  289,  295 ; 
administration  of,  299,  300,  302,  303. 

Jackson,  Stonewall,  358,  373,  375,  376, 
377,  381. 

James  I.,  71. 

James  II.,  99. 

Jamestown  founded,  58 ;  story  of  col 
ony,  61-66. 

Japan  opened,  338. 

Jasper,  Sergeant,  200,  224. 

Jay,  John,  232,  249,  254. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  201,  249,  255;  ad 
ministration  of,  261,  264,  265. 

John  Brown  raid,  484. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  Vice-President,  403  ; 
President,  412  ;  impeachment  of,  415. 

Johnston,  General  Albert  S.,  at  Shiloh, 
367. 


INDEX. 


591 


Johnston,  General  Joseph  E.,  354,  357, 

373,  390,  405. 
Johnstown  flood,  439. 

K. 

Kansas,    335;    fighting    in,   336;    ad 
mitted,  342 ;  troubles,  483. 
Kearny,  General,  in  New  Mexico,  324. 
Kentucky  admitted,  250 ;  invaded,  364. 
Key,  Francis  S.,  282. 
Kidd,  Captain,  107. 
King  George's  War,  149. 
King  Philip's  War,  89. 
King  William's  War,  145. 
King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  225. 
Kitchen,  New  England,  134. 
Klondike,  gold  found  on  the,  452. 
Know-Nothing  party,  337,  484. 
Knoxville,  siege  of,  390. 


Labor  associations,  437. 

Lafayette,  Marquis  de,  209,  229,  293. 

Lake  Champlain,  battle  of,  280. 

Lake  Erie,  battle  of,  278. 

Lake  George,  battle  of,  161. 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  79. 

La  Rabida  convent,  19. 

La  Salle,  story  of,  51,  52. 

Laudonni£re,  47. 

Lawrence,  Captain,  death  of,  277. 

Lee,  General  Charles,  205,  218. 

Lee,  General  Henry,  227,  252. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  201. 

Lee,  General  Robert  E.,  354;  in  com 
mand,  374;  attacks  McClellan,  375; 
at  Bull  Run,  376;  at  Antietam,  377; 
at  Fredericksburg,  378 ;  at  Chancel- 
lorsville,  380  ;  at  Gettysburg,  384,  392, 
403;  surrender  of,  405. 

Legislature,  first,  70 ;  two  houses,  464. 

Leisler  rebellion,  107. 

Lewis  and  Clark  expedition,  264,  265. 

Lexington,  battle  of,  192. 


Libraries,  521. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  322,  344,  345;  ad 
ministration  of,  348  ;  proclaims  eman 
cipation,  379,  403;  death  of,  406. 

Lincoln,  General,  224. 

Literature,  525-528. 

Livingston,  Robert  R.,  201. 

London  Company,  57. 

Long  Island,  battle  of,  204. 

Longstreet,  General,  at  Gettysburg, 
384;  at  Chickamauga,  388;  at  Knox 
ville,  390. 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  389. 

Lord  North,  183. 

Louisburg  taken,  150,  151,  164. 

Louisiana  settled,  129;  crops  of,  138; 
ceded  to  Spain,  169 ;  purchase,  263 ; 
admitted,  285. 

Louisville  founded,  242. 

Lyon,  General,  355. 

M. 

McClellan,  General  George  B.,  in  West 
Virginia,  357 ;  commander-in-chief, 
371 ;  before  Richmond,  372 ;  seven 
days'  battle,  375 ;  at  Antietam,  377 : 
removal  of,  378;  candidate  for  Presi 
dent,  403. 

McDonough,  Commodore,  280. 

McDowell,  General  Irwin,  357,  373. 

McKinley,  William,  President,  451, 
462;  assassination  of,  464. 

Madison,  James,  237 ;  elected  Presi 
dent,  269  ;  policy  of,  270. 

Magellan's  voyage,  27. 

Magruder,  General  John  B.,  372. 

Maine,  settlement  of,  90 ;  admitted,  292. 

Maine,  sinking  of  the,  453. 

Manhattan  Island,  60,  102. 

Manila,  battle  in  bay  of,  454 ;  capture 
of,  460. 

Manufactures,  American,  173,  243,  523. 

Marietta  settled,  242. 

Marion,  General  Francis,  225. 


592 


INDEX. 


Marquette  on  the  Mississippi,  51. 
Marshall,  Chief  Justice,  260. 
Maryland   settled,    116-120;    invaded, 

376. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  line,  121. 
Mason  and  Slidell,  359. 
Mason,  John,  91. 
Massachusetts,  colony,  83;   growth  of, 

85;  new  government,  101;  provincial 

Congress,  190,  196. 

Massacre  at  St.  Augustine,  48 ;  in  Vir 
ginia,  72,  74,  75;  in  New  York,  104; 

in    King    William's    War,    146 ;    in 

Queen  Anne's  War,  148. 
Massasoit,  treaty  with,  81,  89. 
Matamoras  occupied,  323. 
Maximilian  in  Mexico,  416. 
Mayflower  compact,  the,  542. 
Mayflower,  voyage  of  the,  79. 
Meade,  General  George  G.,  383. 
Mecklenburg  County  resolutions,  200. 
Memphis,  capture  of,  368. 
Menendez,  Pedro,  47. 
Merrimac,   the,    in    Hampton    Roads, 

360 ;  blown  up,  373. 
Merrimac,  sinking  the  collier,  456. 
Mexican  War,  321 ;  results  of,  326. 
Mexico,  city  of,  occupied,  325. 
Michigan  admitted,  306. 
Military  service  in  New  England,  138. 
Minnesota  admitted,  342. 
Mint  founded,  252. 
Minuit,  Governor,  102. 
Minute-men.  190. 
Missionary  explorations,  51. 
Missionary  Ridge,  389. 
Mississippi  admitted,  291. 
Mississippi   River,  43 ;   discovered   by 

De  Soto,  44 ;  Marquette  on,  51 ;  La 

Salle  on,  52;  opened,  387;  jetties  of, 

430;  overflow  of,  451. 
Mississippi  scheme,  the,  130. 
Missouri   admitted,   292 ;    contest  for, 

356. 


Missouri  Compromise,  291,  489. 
Mobile  founded,  129 ;  taken,  401. 
Monitor  and  Merrimac,  361. 
Monmouth,  battle  of,  218. 
Monroe  doctrine,  290,  447. 
Monroe,  James,  263 ;  President,  285. 
Montana  admitted,  439. 
Montcalm,  Marquis  de,  162 ;  death  o 

167. 

Monterey  taken,  323. 
Montgomery,  General,  killed,  198. 
Montreal  taken,  168. 
Morgan,  Daniel,  227. 
Morgan's  raid,  387. 
Mormons,  the,  317. 
Morris,  Robert,  233,  496. 
Morse,  telegraph  discovered  by,  318. 
Morton  discovers  anaesthesia,  318. 
Morton,  Levi  P.,  Vice-President,  438. 
Mound-builders,  the,  37-39. 
Murfreesboro',  battle  of,  370. 
Museums,  529. 

N. 

Napoleon,  duplicity  of,  271. 

Narragansett  Indians  destroyed,  89c 

Natchez  Indians  destroyed,  130. 

National  banks,  408,  499. 

National  parks,  448. 

National  Republican  party,  296. 

National  road,  267,  505. 

Nat  Turner  insurrection,  304. 

Natural  gas,  536. 

Naval  victories,  276,  278. 

Naval  squadrons,  454. 

Navigation  laws,  74,  172. 

Navy,  United  States,  449. 

Nebraska,  335 ;  admitted,  417. 

Nevada  admitted,  410. 

New  Amsterdam,  102,  104,  105< 

Newark  founded,  108. 

New-Bern  founded,  123. 

New  Castle,  Penn  at,  112. 


INDEX. 


593 


New  England  named,  77;  first  settle 
ment,  80;  customs  of,  131-138;  trade 
of,  174. 

Newfoundland,  fisheries  of,  45,  191. 

New  France,  46. 

New  Hampshire  settled,  90. 

New  Haven  colony,  96. 

New  Jersey,  108,  109. 

New  Mexico  occupied,  324;  purchased, 
326. 

New  Netherland,  102;  Company,  103. 

New  Orleans  founded,  130;  battle  of, 
283 ;  taken,  368. 

Newport  settled,  92. 

Newspapers,  527,  528. 

Netv  Sweden,  105,  110. 

New  York,  102,  105;  customs  in,  138; 
taken,  204. 

Non-intercourse  act,  269. 

North,  advantages  of  the,  352. 

North  Carolina  settled,  122. 

North  Dakota  admitted,  439. 

Northmen,  the,  12. 

Northwest  passage,  53. 

Northwestern  Territory,  236,  237,  242. 

Nova  Scotia,  149. 

Nullification,  297,  302. 

O. 

Ocean  telegraph,  343. 

Office-holding,  300. 

Oglethorpe,  colony  of,  126,  127;  inva 
sion  of  Florida  by,  151. 

Ohio  admitted,  263. 

Ohio  Company,  the,  153. 

Oklahoma  opened,  438. 

Old  Dominion,  the,  77. 

Old  Stone  Mill,  the,  13. 

Orders  in  council,  273. 

Oregon  explored,  264;  question,  315; 
admitted,  342. 

Oregon,  voyage  of  the,  458. 

Oriskany,  battle  of,  214. 

Oswego  taken,  162. 


P. 

Pacific  discovered,  27  ;  explored,  44. 

Pacific  Railroad,  420. 

Packingham,  General,  death  of,  28? 

Paine's  "  Common  Sense,"  201. 

Palo  Alto,  battle  of,  323. 

Palos,  20,  23. 

Panama  Canal  and  treaty,  467. 

Pan-American  Congress,  439  ;  Exposi 
tion,  463. 

Panic  of  1837,  308;  of  1857,  343;  of 
1873,  425. 

Paper  money,  494. 

Parks,  public,  538. 

Patroons,  the,  103. 

Patterson,  General  Robert,  357, 

Paul  Jones,  John,  221. 

Peace  with  France,  168  ;  with  Englan  1, 
232,  283;  with  Spain,  460. 

Pea  Ridge,  battle  of,  371. 

Penn,  William,  109,  110;  in  America, 
112;  treaty,  114,  115. 

Pennsylvania  settled,  111;  Dutch,  501. 

Pensions,  441. 

People  of  Pennsylvania,  140;  location 
of  the,  503. 

People's  rights,  104, 106, 118 ;  party,  485. 

Pepperell,  William,  150. 

Pequot  War,  95. 

Perry,  Captain,  on  Lake  Erie,  278,  279. 

Perry,  Commodore,  in  Japan,  338. 

Perryville,  battle  of,  369. 

Petersburg,  siege  of,  392,  395. 

Petroleum  discovered,  536. 

Philadelphia  founded,  112;  growth  of, 
114:  life  in,  140;  taken,  211 ;  evacu 
ated,  218. 

Philip,  King,  89. 

Philippine  Islands,  cession  of,  460; 
war  in,  461. 

Phipps,  Sir  William,  148. 

Pickett's  charge  at  Gettysburg,  384- 

Pierce,  Franklin,  President,  334. 

Pilgrims,  landing  of,  79. 


38 


594 


INDEX. 


Pinckney,  Charles,  257. 

Pirates,  the,  107. 

Pitt,  William,  164,  191. 

Plantation  life,  141. 

Plymouth   Company,   57,   77;   colony, 

80-83;  compact,  471. 
Pocahontas,  63,  68. 
Political  conditions,  454 ;  parties,  482- 

486. 

Polk,  James  K.,  President,  319,  320. 
Polk,  General  Leonidas,  364,  366. 
Polo,  Marco,  11,  15. 
Polygamy,  434. 
Ponce  de  Leon,  42. 
Pontiac's  War,  170. 
Pope,  General  John,  366,  376. 
Popham,  Sir  George,  57. 
Population,  241,  502,  503. 
Porter,  Commodore,  368. 
Porto  Rico,  invasion  of,  459 ;  cession  of, 

460  :  affairs  in,  464. 
Port  Royal,  46,  49,  148. 
Portugal,  15,  41. 
Postage  rates,  514. 
Postal  reform,  333  ;  service,  513. 
Potato,  the,  515. 
Powhatan,  63. 

President  and  Little  Belt,  272. 
Presidential  succession,  482. 
Presidents,  table  of  the,  566. 
Princeton,  battle  of,  209. 
Proprietaries  of  Carolina,  128;  govern 
ment  of,  in  New  Jersey,  108. 
Protective  tariff,  288. 
Providence  founded,  87. 
Public  improvements,  292,  297. 
Pueblo  Indians,  38. 
Pulaski,  Count,  death  of,  224. 
Pullman  strike,  the,  446. 
Punishments  in  the  colonies,  137 
Puritans  in  England, 78  ;  seek  America, 
83 ;  bigotry  of,  86 ;  in  New  Jersey, 
108  ;  in  Maryland,  119  ;  dress  of,  135. 
Putnam,  General  Israel,  193. 


Q. 

Quakers,  persecution  of,  88 ;  buy  New 
Jersey,  109  ;  settle  Pennsylvania,110. 

Quartering  Act,  the,  181. 

Quebec,  settlement  of,  50 ;  taken  by 
Captain  Kirk,  145 ;  attacked,  148 ;  be 
sieged  and  taken  by  Wolfe,  165-167. 

Queen  Anne's  War,  148. 

Questions  for  review,  575. 

Quincy,  Josiah,  184. 

R. 

Railroad  extension,  420,  503;  strike, 
430. 

Raleigh's  colonies,  56. 

Randolph,  Peyton,  189. 

Reconstruction  Acts,  414. 

Red  River  expedition,  400. 

Regicides,  the,  98. 

Religious  liberty  in  Rhode  Island,  93; 
in  Maryland,  116,  118;  strictures  in 
New  England,  131 ;  restrictions,  475. 

Representative  Assembly,  first,  71, 471. 

Republican  party,  253,  338,  484,  492. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma,  322. 

Revenue  surplus,  303;  during  war, 
407. 

Revere's  ride,  Paul,  192. 

Reynolds,  General,  death  of,  383. 

Rhode  Island  settled,  92  ;  religious  lib 
erty  in,  93  ;  contest  in,  314. 

Ribault,  Jean,  46,  121. 

Rice  planted,  124,  516. 

Richmond,  panic  at,  373  j  McClellan's 
siege  of,  372  ;  Grant's  advance  on, 
392 ;  surrender  of,  403. 

Right  of  search,  272,  314. 

Roads,  early,  508. 

Roanoke  Island  colony,  56. 

Rolfe,  John,  67. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  in  Spanish  War, 
457;  Vice-President,  462;  becomes 
President,  465. 


INDEX. 


595 


Rosecrans,  General  William  S.,  in  West 
Virginia,  357;  at  Corinth,  370;  at 
Chickamauga,  388. 

Rotation  in  office,  300. 

Royal  colonies,  101,  106,  109,  120,  125, 
128,  474. 

S. 

St.  Augustine  founded,  48 ;  taken,  149  ; 
besieged,  151. 

St.  Louis  Exposition,  468. 

St.  Leger's  campaign,  212. 

St.  Mary  founded,  118,  120. 

Salary  grab  bill,  422. 

Salem  settled,  83  ;  witchcraft,  90. 

Sampson,  Admiral  William  T.,  454. 

San  Francisco,  328,  444. 

Sanitary  Commission,  410. 

Santa  Fe"  founded,  45. 

Santiago,  blockade  of,  455;  battle  of, 
458  ;  surrender  of,  459. 

Saratoga,  battle  of,  216. 

Savannah  founded,  127 ;  taken,  223, 
400. 

Saybrooke  settled,  95. 

Schenectady,  massacre  at,  146. 

Schley,  Commodore  Winfield  S.,  455. 

Schools,  530,  533,  534. 

Schuyler,  General  Philip,  212,  218. 

Scientists,  American,  528,  529. 

Scott,  General,  victories  of,  279;  cam 
paign  in  Mexico,  324 ;  candidate  for 
President,  334. 

Seal,  fur,  441. 

Seamen,  impressment  of,  269,  272. 

Secession  of  Southern  States,  345. 

Seminole  War,  305. 

Separatists  in  Holland,  78. 

Seven  days'  battle,  375. 

Seward,  Secretary,  attempt  io  kill,  406. 

Sewing-machine  invented,  333. 

Seymour,  Horatio,  41 8. 

Shafter,  Major-General,  456. 

Shays's  rebellion,  235. 


Sheridan,  General,  in  Shenandoah  Val 
ley,  394;  cuts  off  Lee's  march,  404. 

Sherman,  General,  at  Vicksburg,  370; 
at  Missionary  Ridge,  389;  com- 
mander  in  West,  390;  capture  of 
Atlanta,  396 ;  march  through  Georgia. 
399 ;  march  North,  403. 

Sherman,  Roger,  201. 

Shiloh,  battle  of,  367. 

Silver  legislation,  429 ;  Bland  bill,  430  ; 
Sherman  bill,  442  :  repeal  of  bill,  448 ; 
coinage,  500. 

Sioux  outbreak,  371 ;  War,  423,  441. 

Six  Nations,  126. 

Slavery  introduced,  70;  problem  of 
330 ;  story  of,  486-493. 

Slave-trade  abolished,  267. 

Sloughter,  Governor,  107. 

Smith,  Captain  John,  62-65,  73,  78. 

Smith,  Joseph,  317. 

Smuggling  in  New  England,  174. 

Soldiers  in  Boston,  183 ;  mutiny  of,  234. 

Sons  of  Liberty,  179. 

South  Carolina  settled,  123;  overrun, 
224;  regained,  229;  nullification  in, 
302 ;  secedes,  345. 

South  Dakota  admitted,  439. 

Southern  officers  secede,  354. 

South,  hostile  acts  of,  351 ;  advantages 
of,  353 ;  exhaustion  of,  398 ;  finances 
of,  408  ;  new,  535. 

South  Mountain,  battle  of,  377. 

Spain  aids  Columbus,  19;  treaty  with, 
255 ;  war  declared  against,  454 ;  treaty 
of  peace  with,  460. 

Spanish  army,  surrender  of,  459. 

Spanish  explorations,  41 ;  claims,  45. 

Spanish  fleet,  destruction  of,  455,  458 

Specie  payments  resumed,  429. 

Speculation,  fever  of,  304. 

Spoils  system,  the,  300. 

Spottsylvania,  battle  of,  392. 

Stage  travel,  508. 

Stamp  act,  178-180;  Congress,  477; 


596 


INDEX. 


Standard  time,  434. 

Standish,  Captain  Miles,  82. 

Stark,  John,  193,  213. 

Starving  time,  the,  65. 

State   repudiation,    309 ;    governments 

formed,  413. 

States  and  Territories,  table  of,  565. 
States,  disunion  of,  236;  ratify  Consti 
tution,  240  ;  readmission  of  seceded, 

414,419. 

Steamboat  invented,  266,  510. 
Steamship    crosses    the  Atlantic,   266, 

510. 
Stephens,  Alexander  H.,Vice-President 

of  Confederacy,  346. 
Stevenson,    Adlai    E.,   Vice-President, 

445. 

Stony  Point  taken,  221. 
Stowe,  Mrs.  H.  B.,  340. 
Street  railways,  513. 
Strikes,  430,  443,  446,  467. 
Stuyvesant,  Governor,  104. 
Sub-treasury  system,  309,  327. 
Suffrage  in  Rhode  Island,  312. 
Sugar  culture,  517. 
Sullivan,  General,  defeats  the  Indians, 

220. 

Sumner,  attack  on  Senator,  336. 
Sumner,  General  Edwin  V.,  374. 
Sunday  in  New  England,  132. 

T. 

Table  of  States  and  Territories,  565;  of 

Presidents,  566. 
Tariff  question,  288;  of  1827,  297;  of 

war,   407.;  McKinley,    441;  Wilson, 

446;  of  1897,  451. 
Tarleton,  Colonel,  224,  227. 
Taxation  of  colonies,  178,  181. 
Tax  on  tea,  185. 
Taylor,General  Zachary,on  Rio  Grande, 

321  ;    at  Monterey,  323 ;    at  Buena 

Vista,  323;  elected  President,  329; 

death  of,  332. 


Tea,  tax  on,  185;  party,  Boston,  186. 
Tecumseh,  war  with,  272 ;   killed,  279. 
Telegraph  invented,  318;  ocean  cable 

laid,  343,  512. 
Telephone  invented,  513. 
Temperance  reform,  298,  538. 
Tennessee    admitted,    250 ;    occupied, 

361. 

Tenure  of  office  act,  415. 
Territorial  extension,  539. 
Texas,  insurrection  in,  316 ;    annexed, 

316;  war  in,  321. 
Thames,  battle  of,  279. 
Thomas, General,  366 ;  at  Chickamauga, 

388;  at  Missionary  Ridge,  389;  at 

Nashville,  398. 
Ticonderoga,  Fort,  built,  162  ;  battle  at, 

163;  taken  by  Ethan  Allen,  195. 
Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  426. 
Tobacco  taken  to  England,  56;  grown 

in  Virginia,  67;  culture  of,  516. 
Tories,  treatment  of,  236. 
Townsend  Acts,  181. 
Travel,  colonial,  507. 
Treasury  notes  issued,  498. 
Treaty  of  peace,  168,  232,  283,  460. 
Trenton,   victory   of,   207;     result   of, 

208. 

Tripoli,  war  with,  262. 
Troops  called  out,  350. 
Tuscarora  Indian  War,  126. 
Tyler,  John,Vice-President,  311 ;  Presi 
dent,  811. 

U. 

"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  "  published,  340, 
483. 

Underground  railroad,  332,  491. 

United  Colonies  of  New  England,  474. 

United  States,  independence  declared, 
201 ;  recognized  by  France,  217:  in 
dependence  acknowledged  by  Eng 
land,  232;  Articles  of  Confederation 
of,  234;  Constitution  of,  240,  548; 


INDEX. 


597 


Hawaii  annexed  to,  459;  territory 
won  from  Spain,  460. 

United  States  Bank,  251,  284,  303,  497, 

.   498. 

Upland,  village  of,  112. 

Utah  settled  by  Mormons,  318;  admit 
ted,  448. 

V. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  Vice-President, 
307;  President,  307 ;  candidate,  310, 
329. 

Vera  Cruz  taken,  324. 

Vermont  admitted,  250. 

Verrazano,  voyage  of,  46. 

Vespucci,  voyages  of,  25 ;  America 
named  after,  25. 

Vicksburg,  expedition  against,  370. 
capture  of,  386. 

Vigilance  committee,  328. 

Vineland  discovered,  12  ;  voyages  to,  13  ; 

Virginia  named,  56 ;  North  and  South, 
57 ;  colony  in,  61 ;  government  of, 
66-70 ;  a  royal  province,  72 ;  joins 
Confederacy,  354 ;  in  1862,  371. 


W. 

Wallace,  General,  defeated   by  Early, 

393. 
War   declared   against   England,    273 ; 

seat  of,  274 ;  declared  against  Mexico, 

321;    civil,    363;    preparations    for, 

453;    declared   against   Spain,    454; 

results  of,  460. 

Ward,  General  Artemas,  196. 
Warner,  Seth,  195. 
Warren,  General,  death  of,  197. 
Washington,    city    of,    taken    by    the 

British,  280;    threatened   by  Early, 

393. 
Washington,  George,  mission  to  French 

forts,   154;    at  Fort  Necessity,   157; 

with  Braddock,  159 ;  takes  Fort  Du- 


quesne,  165 ;  commander-in-chief, 
195 ;  at  Boston,  197  ;  at  New  York, 
203;  retreat  to  the  Delaware,  205; 
at  Trenton,  207 ;  at  Princeton,  208 ; 
at  Morristown,  209;  defends  Phila 
delphia,  211 ;  at  Valley  Forge,  212, 
217;  at  Monmouth,  219;  at  York- 
town,  230 ;  president  of  convention, 
238 ;  President  of  the  United  States, 
247;  retires,  255;  death  of,  259; 
monument  to,  434. 

Washington,  Colonel  William  A.,  227. 

Washington,  state  of,  admitted,  439. 

Wayne,  General,  at  Stony  Point,  221, 
253. 

Weather  Bureau,  421. 

Webster,  great  oration  of,  301,  312,  314 ; 
death  of,  333. 

Wesleys  in  Georgia,  128. 

West,  settlement  of  the,  242 ;  situation 
of,  369,  504,  536. 

West  Virginia,  war  in,  357 ;  admitted, 
410. 

Weyler,  General,  cruelty  of,  452. 

Wheat  culture,  516. 

Whig  party,  307;  opposes  Tyler,  312, 
483. 

Whiskey  War,  the,  252;  ring,  422. 

Whitefield  in  Georgia,  128. 

Whitman,  Dr.,  saves  Oregon,  315. 

Whitney,  Eli,  246. 

Wild-cat  banks,  308. 

Wilderness,  battle  of,  392. 

William  and  Mary  College,  532. 

William,  King,  101. 

Williams,  Roger,  86,  92. 

Williamsburg,  battle  of,  372. 

Wilmot  Proviso,  326. 

Wilson,  Henry,  Vice-President,  425. 

Winthrop,  John,  83;  colony  of,  95. 

Wisconsin  admitted,  326. 

Witchcraft,  Salem,  90. 

Wolfe,  General,  at  Quebec,  165 ;  death 
of,  167. 


598 


INDEX. 


Woman  suffrage,  448,  481. 
Women  brought  to  Virginia,  69. 
World's  Fair,  New  York,  339 ;  Centen 
nial,  426  j  Columbian,  443. 
Writs  of  Assistance,  175. 
Wyoming,  massacre  of,  219. 
Wyoming,  State  of,  admitted,  439. 


Y. 


Yale  College,  532. 

Yellow  fever  in  South,  431. 

Yorktown  taken  by  Washington,  230 ; 

besieged  by  McClellan,  372. 
Young,  Brigham,  318. 


THE   END. 


117  Longitude 


Longitude  107 


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